1 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W
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1-repetition maximum (1RM): The greatest amount of weight that can be lifted with proper technique for only one repetition.
2-for-2 rule: A guideline that can be used to increase the load when two or more repetitions above the repetition goal are completed in the final set of an exercise for two consecutive training sessions.
A
Abduction: Movement of a body part away from the median plane, such as extending arms outward at shoulder height from a hanging-down position.
Abs: Slang for abdominal muscles.
Absolute Strength: Developed through heavy weight training, typically involving above the 80-85% of maximum effort for each lift. Its 3 components are concentric, eccentric, and static strength. No ergogenic aids (e.g., drugs, therapies, or nutritional products) are used in training for absolute strength, whereas such ergogens are used to acquire limit strength.
1. Concentric strength refers to the one-rep maximum for a movement.
2. Eccentric is the one-rep maximum lowering a weight under control (usually 40% more than concentric).
3. Static is the maximum holding strength in each position (20% more than concentric).
Acceleration: An increase in velocity.
Acclimation: A program undertaken to induce acclimatization to new environmental conditions, such as changes in temperature or altitude.
Acclimatization: The body’s gradual adaptation to a changed environment, such as higher temperatures or lower pressures (from high altitude).
Accommodating Resistance: A weight training machine which, through the use of air, fluid or clutch plates in tandem with a flywheel, controls the speed with which you are able to move. By controlling speed, the exertion you are able to deliver is always at maximum throughout the entire range of motion of an exercise. This technology is very useful during rehabilitation, when injuries are present, and also in sports training for speed-strength. (See Isokinetic Resistance, Variable Resistance and Constant Resistance)
Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA): A chief precursor of lipids. Formed by an acetyl group attaching itself to coenzyme A (CoA) during the oxidation of amino acids, fatty acids, or pyruvate.
Achilles Flare: A bowing of the Achilles tendon toward the midline of the body (Helbing’s sign) which is associated with eversion or pronation of the foot.
Acid-Base Balance: Refers to the condition in which the pH of the blood is at a constant level of 7.35 to 7.45. The acidity of blood is kept from becoming too acidic or alkaline through respiration, buffers, and work done by the kidney.
Acromegaly: A chronic pituitary gland disorder developing in adult life characterized by increased massiveness of the bones, organs and other body parts and elongation and enlargement of the bones.
Actin: Long, thin contractile filaments. One of the fibrous protein constituents of the protein complex actomyosin. It is a protein which, when combined with myosin forms actomyosin, the contractile constituent of muscle.
Action Potential: A temporary change (reversal) in the electrical charge of a muscle or nerve cell when it is stimulated.
Activities of Daily Living: Self-care activities performed daily to maintain health and well-being (e.g., getting in and out of bed, personal hygiene, eating, performing manual tasks, ambulating, or using a wheelchair).
Actomyosin: The system involved in muscle contraction and relaxation, which is composed of actin and myosin protein filaments.
Acute: Sudden, short-term, sharp, or severe. See also chronic.
Adam’s Position: From a standing position with the feet together, flex forward at the hips while allowing the trunk to relax, head down, and arms to hang down with the palms together. Used to determine structural scoliosis.
Adaptation: The adjustment of the body (or mind) to achieve a greater degree of fitness to its environment. Adaptations are more persistent than an immediate response to the new stimuli of the environment. See also response.
Adaptive Behaviour: Behaviour that aids the individual in effective, age-appropriate social interactions, mobility, and independence.
Additives: Substances other than a foodstuff present in food because of production, processing, storage, or packaging.
Examples: preservatives, colouring, thickeners (gums), excipients and binders.
Adduction: Movement of a body part toward middle axis of the body. Returning arms to the side from extended position at shoulders.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): The body’s energizer, an organic compound present in muscle fibres that is broken down through a variety of enzymatic processes. The resultant spark of energy released stimulates hundreds of microscopic filaments within each cell, triggering muscle contraction.
Adenosine Triphosphatase (ATPase): An enzyme that hydrolyses, or breaks down, ATP and causes the release of energy.
Adherence: Sticking to something. Used to describe a person’s continuation in an exercise program. See also compliance.
Adhesion: Fibrous tissue holding muscles or other parts together that have been altered or damaged through trauma.
Adipose Tissue: Fat tissue.
Adrenal glands: Two glands that release hormones that help the body to cope with stress.
Aerobic: Occurring with the use of oxygen, or requiring oxygen.
Aerobic Activities: Activities using large muscle groups at moderate intensities that permit the body to use oxygen to supply energy and to maintain a steady state for more than a few minutes. See also steady state.
Aerobic Endurance: The ability to continue aerobic activity over a period of time.
Aerobic Exercise: Activities in which oxygen from the blood is required to fuel the energy-producing mechanisms of muscle fibres. Examples are running, cycling, and skiing over distance. Aerobic means “with oxygen.”
Aerobic Power: Also known as VO2 Max. See also Functional Capacity.
Aerobic Strength Endurance: Force produced footfall-per footfall (or movement-per-movement) in the face of massive oxygen debt, such as that incurred in long distance training or competition (see cardiovascular/cardiorespiratory endurance). While many factors contribute to aerobic strength endurance, there are at least 9 critical components:
(1.) Cardiovascular endurance relates to the efficiency in getting oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood to the working muscles, and “spent” blood back to the heart.
(2.) Cardiorespiratory endurance involves the efficiency of the “loop” where the blood goes from the heart to the lungs, gets rid of water and carbon dioxide, picks up oxygen, and returns to the heart for delivery to the body.
(3.) Max VO2 Uptake: Maximum Volume of Oxygen Taken up by the working muscles, expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (ml/kg/min).
(4.) Stroke Volume: The volume of blood pushed out of the left ventricle with each beat.
(5.) Ejection Fraction: The percentage of the total volume of blood in the left ventricle that is pushed out with each beat.
(6.) Heart Rate: The number of times your heart beats during each minute.
(7.) Willingness to endure pain (especially from lactic acid accumulation).
(8.) Skill (at running, etc.)
(9.) Total Body Limit Strength: The 8 factors above being equal, the strongest will win.
Aetiology: The cause of a medical condition.
Afferent System: The part of the PNS that sends messages to the CNS.
Affective: Pertains to feelings or emotions.
Age-predicted Maximal Heart Rate (APMHR): The estimated maximum heart rate as influenced by age (i.e., 220 − age).
Agonist: A muscle which directly engages in an action around a joint which has another muscle that can provide an opposing action (antagonist).
Alternated grip: A grip in which one hand is pronated and the other hand is supinated.
Alveoli: Capillary-rich air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
Amino Acids: The building blocks of protein. There are 24 amino acids, which form countless number of different proteins. They all contain nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. Amino acids are either essential or nonessential. The “L” isomer of the amino acids has greater biological value, and is distinguished from the “molecular mirror image” isomer which is called the “D” form. Thus, references to the individual amino acids often begin with the prefix “L.”
Amenorrhea: Loss of menses for at least three consecutive menstrual cycles.
Ammonia Scavengers: Combinations of certain amino acids (especially glutamic acid in combination with vitamin B-6) and minerals that help remove ammonia from the blood. Ammonia is a toxic by-product of intense training (caused by the breakdown of amino acids for energy) and endurance events, which can accumulate to cause severe fatigue.
Amortization phase: The time between the eccentric and concentric phases.
Amputation: Congenital or acquired loss of an extremity or portion thereof.
Anabolic: Pertaining to the putting together of complex substances from simpler ones, especially to the building of body proteins from amino acids.
Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids (AAS): A group of synthetic, testosterone-like hormones that promote anabolism, including muscle hypertrophy. Medical uses include promotion of tissue repair in severely debilitated patients, but their use in athletics is illegal in the USA and many other countries, and is considered unethical and therefore banned by almost all international sports governing bodies. Abuse and misuse of this potent class of drugs carry numerous health risks.
Anabolism: The metabolic processes which build up living body substances, that is, the synthesis of complex substances from simple ones. Example: muscle-building by combining amino acids together. Anabolism uses the available energy generated by catabolic processes to form the chemical bonds which unite the components of increasingly complex molecules. Anabolism is the opposite of catabolism.
Anaerobic: Occurring without the use of oxygen.
Anaerobic Exercise: Short-term activities (usually highly intense) in which muscle fibres derive contractile energy from stored internal compounds without the use of oxygen from the blood. These compounds include ATP, CP and Glycogen. Short bursts of “all-out” effort, such as sprinting or weightlifting are examples of anaerobic activities.
Anaerobic Threshold: The point where increasing energy demands of exercise cannot be met using oxygen, and an oxygen debt begins to be incurred.
Anaemia: A subnormal number or haemoglobin content of red blood cells caused when blood loss exceeds blood production. Symptoms may include fatigue, pale complexion, light headedness, palpitations, and loss of appetite.
Anatomy: The science of the structure of the human body.
Anatomical position: Position in which a person stands erect with arms down at the sides and palms forward.
Androgen: Any substance that aids in development and controls the appearance of male characteristics.
Angina: A gripping, choking, or suffocating pain in the chest (angina pectoris), caused most often by insufficient flow of oxygen to the heart muscle during exercise or excitement. Exercise should stop, and medical attention should be obtained.
Angular motion: Motion in which a body rotates about an axis.
Angular velocity: An object’s rotational speed.
Anomalies: Congenital deformity or abnormal development of organ, tissue, or bone.
Anorexia: A condition where a person experiences a loss of appetite; it is distinguished from anorexia nervosa (below).
Anorexia Nervosa: A psychological and physiological condition (most commonly among young women) characterized by inability or refusal to eat, or an extreme aversion to food, leading to severe weight loss, malnutrition, hormone imbalances, and other potentially life-threatening biological changes.
Antagonist: A muscle that can provide an opposing action to the action of another muscle (the agonist) around a joint.
Anthropometry: The science of measurement applied to the human body; generally, includes measurements of height, weight, and selected body girths.
Anterior: Front or in front of.
Anterior tilt: Forward tilt of the pelvic girdle
Anthropometry: The science dealing with the measurement (size, weight, proportions) of the human body.
Antioxidants: Compounds that protect against cell damage inflicted by molecules called oxygen-free radicals, which are a major cause of disease and aging.
Aortic stenosis: Narrowing of the aorta. appendicular skeleton: Skeletal subdivision that consists of the shoulder girdle, arms, legs, and pelvis.
Aphasia: An inability to interpret or execute spoken language (receptive and expressive, respectively) which is not related to diseases of the vocal cords or ears.
Appendicular Skeleton: Bones consisting of the upper and lower extremities, including the pelvic and shoulder girdles.
Apraxia: Inability to motor plan (i.e., execute a series of movements in a coordinated and efficient manner). Probably related to poor input from the tactile, vestibular, and proprioceptive systems.
Aquatics: Exercise or sports activities in or on the water.
Arachidonic Acid: An essential fatty acid found in the liver, brain, and other organs. It is the biosynthetic precursor of prostaglandins. In experiments with mice, the deprivation of all fat intake caused scaly skin, kidney lesions, bloody urine, and early death. These conditions were cured by the administration of arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid. Arachidonic acid is used therapeutically as a nutrient.
Arrhythmia: Any abnormal rhythm of the heartbeat. Since some causes of arrhythmia may have serious health consequences, exercisers experiencing irregular heartbeats should be referred for medical evaluation.
Ataxia: Difficulties with balance; reflected in a gait pattern that utilizes by a wide base of support. A type of cerebral palsy in which balance is affected. Generally, involves a medical condition of the cerebellum.
Arteriosclerosis: Thickening and hardening of the artery walls by one of several diseases. See also atherosclerosis.
Arteriovenous oxygen difference (a–v O2 difference): The difference in the oxygen content of arterial blood versus venous blood expressed in millilitres of oxygen per 100 millilitres of blood.
Artery: Vessel which carries blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body.
Articular: The area of bone where it is joined together with another bone as a joint.
Arthritis: Inflammation of the joints which causes pain, stiffness, and limitation of motion. May be symptomatic of a systemic disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis, which can affect all age groups. See also osteoarthritis.
Assistant Mover: Muscle that plays a secondary role to the prime mover involved.
Assistance exercises: Exercises that involve movement at only one primary joint and recruit a smaller muscle group or only one large muscle group or area.
Asymmetry (body): Lack of symmetry of sides of the body.
Atherosclerosis: A very common form of arteriosclerosis, in which the arteries are narrowed by deposits of cholesterol and other material in the inner walls of the artery. See also arteriosclerosis.
Athetosis: A type of cerebral palsy which is characterized by rotary, involuntary movements. Involves a medical condition of the basal ganglia.
Atrium: An upper chamber of the heart that functions to pump blood to the lower chamber of the heart (i.e., ventricle).
ATP/CP Pathway: ATP and PCr provide anaerobic sources of phosphate-bond energy. The energy liberated from hydrolysis (splitting) of PCr re-bonds ADP and Pi to form ATP.
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; an organic compound found in muscle which, upon being broken down enzymatically, yields energy for muscle contraction.
ATP/CP Sports: Explosive strength sports with movement lasting a second or two at most (examples: shot put, powerlifting, Olympic weightlifting, vertical jump).
ATPase: The enzyme which acts to split the ATP molecule. Three major isoforms of ATPase exist, and correspond to Type I, Type II-a, and Type II-b muscle fibres. ATPase is released from the knobby ends of the cross-bridges located on the myosin myofilaments.
Atrophy: Withering away, a decrease in size and functional ability of bodily tissues or organs, typically resulting from disuse or disease. See also hypertrophy.
Auditory Discrimination: The ability to detect subtle differences among sounds in words (e.g., tap-cap, then-than).
Auscultate: To listen to the sounds of the body by using a stethoscope.
Autonomic System: System that processes and activates involuntary action.
Automated external defibrillator (AED): A por- table device that identifies heart rhythms; uses audio or visual prompts, or both, to direct the correct response; and delivers the appropriate shock only when needed.
Autonomic dysreflexia: Manifestation of a spinal cord injury that disrupts normal regulation of arterial blood pressure.
Albumin: A type of simple protein widely distributed throughout the tissues and fluids of plants and animals. Varieties of albumin are found in blood, milk, egg white, wheat, barley, and muscle.
Aldosterone: A mineralocorticoid which functions as the primary electrolyte-regulatory steroid hormone. It is secreted by the adrenal cortex.
Allergen: A substance that causes an allergy or hypersensitivity.
All-or-none reaction: Concept stating that a unit is either completely relaxed or fully contracted; it is never partly contracted.
Alpha Blocker: A drug that opposes the excitatory effects of norepinephrine released from sympathetic nerve endings at alpha-receptors and that causes vasodilation and a decrease in blood pressure.
Alpha Ketoisocaproate (KIC): KIC is an alpha-ketoacid of L-leucine. There is support in the research literature for it as a stimulant of lymphocyte blastogenesis and antibody response, and it can also increase muscle growth and decrease fat deposition. Recently, KIC has been used extensively in fat loss preparations and in high-protein supplements used clinically to retard muscle wasting.
Average Life Expectancy: This term is often misunderstood. It is commonly used to refer to the number of years that the average person will live from birth. This number has increased significantly over the past century from 45 years to 76 years in developed countries. The increase is mainly due to reductions in infant mortality, deaths due to childbirth, and reduction in infectious diseases rather than extension of the adult life span.
Axial skeleton: Skeletal subdivision that consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thorax (rib cage).
Axilla: The armpit.
Axis of rotation: Imaginary line about which joint rotation occurs.
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B
Back-Cycling: Cutting back on either number of sets, repetitions, amount of weight or (especially) the “negative” contraction (eccentric contraction) used during an exercise session to fully recover. An archaic phrase. A more contemporary: and useful: phrase is “periodization.”
Balance: Relates to the maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving.
Ballistic Movement: An exercise or sports-related movement in which part of the body is “thrown” against the resistance of antagonist muscles or against the limits of a joint. The latter, especially, is considered dangerous to the integrity of ligaments and tendons. High-impact, rapid, jerking movements.
Ballistic Training: Life, and especially sports, is full of ballistic episodes, and it’s important to 1) prevent such episodes from causing injury (microtrauma or macro-trauma), and, paradoxically, 2) make your movements more ballistic in sports where such will provide an advantage (e.g., throwing a 100-m.p.h. fastball). Following a carefully periodized, highly specialized training, nutritional and supplementation regimen will accomplish these goals.
Ballistic stretching: A rapid, jerky movement in which the body part is put into motion and momentum carries it through the range of motion until the muscles are stretched to the limits.
Beta blocker: A drug that opposes the excitatory effects of norepinephrine released from sympa- thetic nerve endings at beta-receptors; used for the treatment of angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and migraine.
Beta oxidation: A series of reactions that modify fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, which can then enter the Krebs cycle to produce ATP.
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): A body composition test that measures the amount of impedance or resistance to a small, painless electrical current.
Bioenergetics: The energy pathways of metabolism.
Body weight exercises: Resistance training in which the client uses his own body weight as the form of resistance.
Bradycardia: A resting heart rate of less than 60 beats/min.
Breach of duty: Conduct of a personal trainer that is not consistent with the standard of care.
Barbell: Weight used for exercise, consisting of a rigid handle 5-7’ long, with detachable metal discs at each end.
Basal Metabolic Rate: The minimum energy required to maintain the body’s life function at rest. Usually expressed in calories per hour per square meter of body surface. See also met.
Behaviour Modification: A procedure that assumes that all behaviour is learned and depend upon consequences. Therefore, behaviour is changeable through a methodically applied system of rewards and punishments.
Behavioural Objectives: Objectives which are written to describe what a student will be able to do because of some planned instruction. These are usually written as objectives that can be measured in some definitive or quantitative way.
Beta-Carotene: A carotenoid (pigment) found in yellow, orange, and deep green vegetables which provides a source of vitamin A when ingested. This substance has been found to have antioxidant and anticancer properties.
Beta oxidation: A series of reactions in which fatty acids are broken down.
Biceps Brachii: The prominent muscle on the front of upper arm.
Bilateral Coordination: A lack of coordination between the two sides of the body. An inability to use two hands and/or legs together in a coordinated fashion. If unable to cross over the midline of the body, the individual may appear ambidextrous (using the left hand on the left side only and vice-versa).
Bilberry: The active component of bilberries is the anthocyanosides. Its chief action as an antioxidant is its powerful synergy with Vitamin E. Studies show that bilberry extract 1) protects blood capillaries, 2) protects the heart, 3) shows excellent anti-inflammatory action, 4) inhibits cholesterol-induced atherosclerosis, 5) inhibits serum platelet aggregation (clotting).
Bile: A thick, sticky fluid secreted by the liver via the bile duct into the small intestine where it aids in the emulsification of fats, increases peristalsis and restores putrefaction. Normally the ejection of bile only occurs during duodenal digestion. The normal adult secretes about 800 to 1,000 millilitres daily.
Biofeedback: A process which permits a person to see or hear indicators of physiological variables, such as blood pressure, skin temperature, or heart rate, which may allow the person to exert some control over those variables. Often used to teach relaxation techniques.
Bioflavonoids (Vitamin P): Water-soluble substances that appear in fruits and vegetables as companions to vitamin C. By name, they are citrin, rutin, hesperidin, flavone and flavanols. They increase the strength of capillaries and regulate their permeability for the countless biochemical transfers that occur between blood and tissue. No RDA. Dietary sources: Citrus fruit pulp, apricots, buckwheat, berries.
Biological Response: The immediate response to stress on the body.
Biological Value: A non-standardized test that describes the efficiency in which protein provides the proper proportions of the essential amino acids needed for protein synthesis. It rates just how efficiently your body uses a specific protein source. The higher the biological value, the more amino acids and nitrogen your body is retaining from the food you eat. This translates into the potential for quality muscle growth and strength.
Biomechanics: The study of the mechanical aspects of physical movement, such as torque, drag, and posture, that is used to enhance athletic technique.
Biotin: A member of the B complex vitamin family essential for metabolism of fat, protein, and vitamins C and B-12. It helps alleviate muscle pains, eczema, dermatitis. No RDA. Dietary sources: egg yolk, liver, whole rice, brewer’s yeast.
Blood: The fluid which circulates through the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. It is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets, and an interstitial fluid called plasma. It derives its reddish colour from the iron within the haemoglobin. Blood functions to provide nutrition and respiration for tissues located far from food and air supplies. It also transports waste from the tissues to the excretory organs. Blood provides chemical and thermal regulation to the body and helps in preventing infection by transporting antibodies.
Blood Glucose: Refers to the amount of sugar in the blood. The blood sugar level in humans is normally 60 to 100 milligrams per 100 millilitres of blood; it rises after a meal to as much as 150 milligrams per 100 millilitres of blood but this may vary.
Blood Pressure: A measurement of the force with which blood presses against the wall of a blood vessel. Blood pressure, as popularly used, is the pressure determined indirectly, existing in the large arteries at the height of the pulse wave. When a blood pressure reading is taken, the systolic over diastolic value is determined. Systolic pressure is primarily caused by the heartbeat or contraction. The diastolic pressure is taken when the heart is filling with blood between beats. Blood pressure values vary appreciably depending on age, sex, and ethnicity. A typical adult reading may be 120mm Hg over 80mm Hg, stated 120 over 80.
Body Awareness: The ability to locate and identify body parts. Also includes an awareness of the relationship of the body parts to each other and to the environment. The development of the body scheme is based on receiving accurate sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints (i.e., proprioception).
Body Composition: The proportions of fat, muscle, and bone making up the body. Usually expressed as percent of body fat and percent of lean body mass.
Body Density: The specific gravity of the body, which can be tested by underwater weighing. Compares the weight of the body to the weight of the same volume of water. Result can be used to estimate the percentage of body fat.
Body Fat: The percentage of fat in the body. In bodybuilding, the lower the percentage, the more muscular the physique appears.
Body Mass Index: Divide your weight (in kilograms) by your height (in meters) squared. Under new government guidelines, people with Body Mass Indexes of 25 to 29.9 are considered overweight while those with BMIs of 30 and above are considered obese. There is strong evidence that weight loss in overweight people reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. These guidelines obviously do not apple to extremely muscular people.
Bodybuilding: The application of training sciences: particularly nutrition and weight training: to enhance musculature and physical appearance.
Boron: A non-metallic earth element. It is required by some plants as a trace element and occurs as a hard crystalline solid or as brown powder. Boron forms compounds such as boric acid or borax. Taken as a supplement (3 mg./day), it shows decidedly favourable anti-osteoporosis activity in middle aged women. Despite its widespread use as a bodybuilding supplement, there is no evidence that it has anabolic properties among otherwise healthy bodybuilders.
Bradycardia: Slow heartbeat. A well-conditioned heart will often deliver a pulse rate of less than 60 beats per minute at rest, which would be considered bradycrotic by standard definitions. See also tachycardia.
Brain Stem: Consists of the medulla, pons, and midbrain.
Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAA): The amino acids L-leucine, L-isoleucine and L-valine, which have a particular molecular structure that gives them their name, comprise 35 percent of muscle tissue. The BCAAs, particularly L-leucine, help increase work capacity by stimulating production of insulin, the hormone that opens muscle cells to glucose. BCAAs are burned as fuel during highly intense training, and at the end of long-distance events, when the body recruits protein for as much as 20 percent of its energy needs.
Brewer’s Yeast: A non-leavening yeast used as a nutritional supplement for its rich content of vitamins (particularly B complex), minerals and amino acids.
Brindall Berry: Fruit from the Garcinia Cambogia plant. See also Hydroxy citrate.
Bromelain: A protein-splitting enzyme in pineapple juice. Used to reduce inflammation and oedema and accelerate tissue repair. Pineapple eaten fresh is the best source.
Buffed: Slang for good muscle size and definition.
Bulimia: The abnormal and unhealthful intake of large amounts of food. It is often followed by the use of laxatives and/or self-induced vomiting.
Bulking Up: Gaining body weight by adding muscle, bodyfat or both.
Bursa: A cushioning sac filled with a lubricating fluid that alleviates friction where there is movement between muscles, between tendon and bone, or between bone and skin.
Bursitis: The inflammation of a bursa, sometimes with calcification in underlying tendon.
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C
Caffeine: A chemical occurring in coffee, black tea and cola drinks with an ability to stimulate the nervous system. In small amounts, it can create mental alertness. In larger amounts, it can cause nervousness, anxiety, sleeplessness, and is used medicinally as a diuretic and headache remedy.
Calcium: The most abundant mineral in the body, a vital factor for bones, teeth, muscle growth, muscle contraction, the regulation of nutrient passage in and out of cells, and nerve transmissions. RDA: 800-1,400 mg. Dose increases with age. Dietary sources: milk and dairy, soybeans, sardines, salmon, peanuts, beans, green vegetables.
Calcium channel blocker: Calcium antagonist that acts directly on the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels to cause vasodilation; for the treatment of angina and hypertension.
Calisthenics: A system of exercise movements, without equipment, for the building of the strength, flexibility, and physical grace. The Greeks formed the word from “kalos” (beautiful) and “sthenos” (strength).
Calorie: When used as a unit of metabolism (as in diet and energy expenditure) equals 1,000 small calories, and is often spelled with a capital C to make that distinction. It is the energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree Celsius. Also called a kilocalorie (kcal).
Calorie Cost: The number of Calories burned to produce the energy for a task. Usually measured in Calories (kcal) per minute.
Cancer: A multi-step process in which cells escape growth regulation and are undergoing evolution due to the selective pressures brought to bear by the environment of the body.
Capillary: the tiny blood vessels that receive blood flow from the arteries, interchange substances between the blood and the tissues, and return the blood to the veins.
Capillarization: An increase in size and number of tiny blood vessels surrounding cells.
Carbohydrate: Chemical compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, usually with the hydrogen and oxygen in the right proportions to form water. Common forms are starches, sugars, cellulose, and gums. Carbohydrates are more readily used for energy production than are fats and proteins. One of the three basic foodstuffs (proteins and fat are the others), carbohydrates are a group of chemical substances including sugars, glycogen, starches, dextrins, and cellulose. They comprise the body’s main source of raw material for energy. They contain only carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Usually, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1. Carbohydrates can be classified as either, a simple carbohydrate or a complex carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate Loading: An eating and exercise technique used to build up ultra-high reserves of glycogen in muscle fibres for maximum endurance in long-distance athletic events. Benefits only events over 60 minutes long, where glycogen can become depleted to inhibit work capacity.
Carbon Dioxide: A colourless, odourless gas that is formed in the tissues by the oxidation of carbon, and is eliminated by the lungs. Its presence in the lungs stimulates breathing.
Cardiac: Pertaining to the heart.
Cardiac Muscle: One of the body’s 3 types of muscle, found only in the heart.
Cardiac Output (Q): The volume of blood pumped out by the heart in each unit of time. It equals the stroke volume times the heart rate. The quantity of blood pumped by the heart per minute expressed in litres or millilitres (i.e., SV / HR).
Cardiac: Pertaining to the heart.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR): A first-aid method to restore breathing and heart action through mouth-to-mouth breathing and rhythmic chest compressions. CPR instruction is offered by local Heart Association and Red Cross units, and is a minimum requirement for most fitness-instruction certifications.
Cardiorespiratory Endurance: The ability of the body to sustain prolonged exercise. See also aerobic endurance.
Cardiovascular: Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels.
Carotid Artery: The principal artery in both sides of the neck. A convenient place to detect a pulse.
Cartilage: A firm, elastic, flexible, white material found at the ends of ribs, between vertebrae (discs), at joint surfaces, and in the nose and ears.
Catabolism: The breaking down aspect of metabolism, including all processes in which complex substances are progressively broken down into simpler ones. Example: the catabolism of protein in muscle tissue into component amino acids, such as occurs in intense training. Another common example is breaking down carbohydrates or fats for use in energy expenditure. Both anabolism and catabolism usually involve the release of energy, and together constitute metabolism.
Catheter: A tube used for evacuating fluid from the bladder or brain. In the case of the bladder, the catheter may be indwelling or external.
Cauda Equina: The terminal portion of the spinal cord (conus medullaris) and roots of the spinal nerves below the first lumbar nerve.
Cellulite: A commercially created name for lumpy fat deposits. This fat behaves no differently from other fat; it is just straining against irregular bands of connective tissue.
Central Nervous System: System comprised of the brain and spinal column.
Cerebral palsy: A group of chronic musculoskeletal deficits causing impaired body movement and muscle coordination.
Chelate: A chelate is a complex formation of a metal ion and two or more charged molecule groups. An ion is an atom or molecule which carries an electric charge; it can be either a cation or an anion.
Chiropractor: One who practices a method for restoring normal condition by adjusting the segments of the spine.
Cholesterol: A steroid alcohol found in animal fats. This pearly, fat-like substance is implicated in the narrowing of the arteries in atherosclerosis. Plasma levels of cholesterol are considered normal between 180 and 230 milligrams per 100 millilitres. Higher levels are thought to pose risks to the arteries.
Choline: A B complex vitamin associated with utilization of fats and cholesterol in the body. A constituent of lecithin, which helps prevent fats from building up in the liver and blood. Essential for health of myelin sheath, a principal component of nervous tissue, and plays important role in transmission of nerve impulses. No RDA. Dietary sources: lecithin, egg yolk, liver, wheat germ.
Chromium: This essential micronutrient activates insulin for vital functions relating to blood sugar, muscle growth and energy, and helps control cholesterol. Chromium deficiency is widespread. Exercise and high consumption of sugar causes depletion. No RDA. Average adult intake should be 50 to 200 micrograms. Dietary sources: brewer’s yeast, shellfish, chicken liver, oysters. Commercially available chromium supplements include picolinate (chromium bound to zinc) and polynicotinate (chromium bound to niacin) varieties. Research is unclear as to their respective “anabolic” activities, but both appear to act as glucose tolerance factor (GTF) regulators. That is, they aid in regulating your blood sugar (and therefore insulin) levels.
Chronic: Continuing over time.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A condition or dysfunction of the pulmonary system (e.g., chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma).
Circuit Training: A series of exercises, performed one after the other, with little rest between. Resistance training in this manner increases strength while making some contribution to cardiovascular endurance as well. (It remains controversial as to whether a significant cardiovascular benefit will be achieved in the absence of very consistent motivation or close supervision of the sessions.)
Circulatory system: System consisting of the heart and blood vessels that serves as the transportation system
Circumduction: Movement of a part, e.g., an extremity, in a circular direction.
Civil system: The judicial system that applies to one’s private rights and therefore to personal responsibilities or obligations that individuals must recognize and observe when dealing with others.
Closed grip: A grip in which the thumb is wrapped around the bar so that the bar is fully held in the palm of the hand.
Closed kinetic chain: Referring to a movement during which the most distal body part’s motion is significantly restricted or fixed; often occurs with lower (or upper) body movements with the feet (or hands) on the floor.
Co-contraction: When both the agonist and antagonist undergo contraction.
Coenzyme Q10: Also called “Ubiquinone,” it is a naturally occurring biochemical within the cells’ mitochondria. Specifically, it acts as an electron carrier in the production of ATP. As a supplement, it is believed to be 1) a potent antioxidant, 2) an immune system booster, 3) energy enhancer, 4) an aid in preventing cardiac arrhythmias and high blood pressure, and 5) a performance enhancer for aerobic athletes, particularly if the athlete is in less than peak condition.
Collagen: Fibrous protein that forms tough connective tissue. The most abundant type of protein in the body. Forms tough connective tissue, the scaffolding holding a muscle in place which becomes the tendons that tie muscles to bones. Connective tissue literally keeps your body together: skin, bones, ligaments, cartilage, and organs.
Collateral Circulation: Blood circulation through small side branches that can supplement (or substitute for) the main vessel’s delivery of blood to certain tissues.
Colostrum: The IGF-I and IGF-II found in colostrum are known to be critical “in vivo” for promoting growth. That is why it exists in mothers’ milk during the critical first few days of lactation. “IGF” stands for “insulin-like growth factor”. The effectiveness of colostrum is measured by its “igg” (immunoglobulin) value.
Columnar Epithelium: Epithelium consisting of one or more cell layers, the most superficial of which is composed of elongated and somewhat cylindrical cells projecting toward the surface.
Compensatory Acceleration Training: A weight lifting technique used to develop explosive strength whereby you accelerate the bar as leverage improves through the movement.
Complete Protein: Refers to protein which contains all essential amino acids in sufficient quantity and in the right ratio to maintain a positive nitrogen balance. The egg is the most complete protein food in nature, with an assimilability ratio of 94-96 percent. That is, up to 96 percent of the protein in eggs will be used as protein. In contrast, about 60-70 percent of the protein in milk, meat or fish can be used as protein (see essential amino acids).
Complex Carbohydrates: Foods of plant origin consisting of 3 or more simple sugars bound together. Also known as polysaccharides. The starch in grains is an example. Compared to monosaccharides (refined carbohydrates such as table sugar and white flour products), complex carbs require a prolonged enzymatic process for digestion and thus provide a slow, even, and ideal flow of energy. This avoids fluctuations in glucose (blood sugar) levels which can affect energy. Complex carbs contain fibre and many nutrients.
Complex training: A combination of resistance and plyometric training.
Compliance: Staying with a prescribed exercise program. (Often used in a medical setting.) See also adherence.
Compound set: Two different exercises for the same primary muscle group that are completed in succession without an intervening rest period.
Concentric: A contraction in which a muscle shortens and overcomes a resistance.
Concentric Contraction: Muscle action in which the muscle is shortening under its own power. This action is commonly called “positive” work, or “concentric contraction.” See also eccentric action, isometric action.
Concussion: An injury from a severe blow or jar. A brain concussion may result in temporary loss of consciousness and memory loss, if mild. Severe concussion causes prolonged loss of consciousness and may impair breathing, dilate the pupils and disrupt other regulatory functions of the brain.
Conditioning: Long-term physical training, typically used in reference to sports preparation.
Connective Tissue: A fibrous tissue (primarily composed of collagen) that binds, supports, and provides a protective packing medium around organs, muscles, and structures of the body. See also fascia, joint capsules, ligament, tendon.
Constant Resistance: Weight training technology wherein the weight you are lifting always remains the same, regardless of changing leverage throughout a given exercise movement. The standing example of constant resistance training is lifting a dumbbell or a barbell. See also Accommodating Resistance and Variable Resistance.
Contraction: The shortening of a muscle or increase in tension.
Contraindication: Any condition which indicates that a particular course of action (or exercise) would be inadvisable.
Contralateral: Situated on the opposite side.
Cool Down: A gradual reduction of the intensity of exercise to allow physiological processes to return to normal. Helps avoid blood pooling in the legs and may reduce muscular soreness.
Coordination, Fine Motor: Pertains to usage of small muscle groups for manipulation (e.g., writing, cutting).
Coordination, Gross Motor: Pertains to usage of large muscle groups for locomotion and manipulation (e.g., jumping, running, throwing, catching).
Copper: A mineral that helps convert the body’s iron into haemoglobin for oxygen transportation through the bloodstream. Essential for utilization of vitamin C. No RDA. Dietary sources: legumes, whole wheat, prunes, liver, seafood.
Core exercise: Exercises that involve movement at two or more primary joints and recruit one or more large muscle groups or areas.
Cori cycle: A gluconeogenic process, taking place in the liver, in which lactate is converted to glucose.
Coronary Arteries: The arteries, circling the heart like a crown, that supply blood to the heart muscle.
Coronary artery disease (CAD): A condition or dysfunction of the cardiovascular system (e.g., atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, angina).
Coronary risk factor: A characteristic, trait, or behaviour that affects the probability of developing cardiovascular disease.
Cortisol: A corticosteroid that causes a breakdown of protein in muscles.
Cortisone: A hormone isolated from the cortex of the adrenal gland; it may be prepared synthetically also. It is believed to be both a precursor and metabolite of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Prior to this conversion to cortisol, it is largely inactive. Cortisol, however, is highly catabolic. Cortisone is important for its regulatory action in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, sodium, and potassium. Pharmacologically as an anti-inflammatory in various conditions, including allergies, collagen diseases and adrenocortical replacement therapy. Disadvantages may include temporary relief and potential toxicity.
Cranial: Refers to the head or skull.
Creatine: Organic acid generally found in the muscle as phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate) that supplies energy for muscle contraction.
Creatine Monohydrate: Clinically used in improving plasma creatine concentrations by as much as 50 percent. Research shows this substance to be effective in improving training intensity and recovery. It is able to pass through the gut wall and into the bloodstream intact, and upon entering the muscle cells, is converted into creatine phosphate (CP), See also creatine phosphate.
Creatine Phosphate (CP): a high-energy phosphate molecule that is stored in cells and can be used to immediately resynthesize ATP.
Criterion-referenced standard: A method to com- pare data that involves a combination of normative data and experts’ judgment to identify a specific level of achievement.
Cross-training: A method of combining several exercise modes within one exercise program.
Cross Bridges: Projections of myosin molecules that link with actin filaments to create a grabbing, pulling effect, resulting in contraction.
Cross-Sectional Study: A study made at one point in time. See also longitudinal study.
Crunches: An abdominal exercise which isolates the abdominals while, at the same time, eliminating unwanted action from the iliopsoas muscles (hip flexors).
Cuboidal epithelium: Epithelial tissue consisting of one or more cell layers, the most superficial of which is composed of cube-shaped or somewhat prismatic cells.
Curvilinear motion: Motion along a curved line.
Cutting Up: Reducing bodyfat and water retention to increase muscular definition.
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Deadlift: One of three powerlifting events. A maximum (1-RM) barbell is lifted off the floor until the lifter is standing erect.
Deceleration: A decrease in velocity.
Defibrillator: A device used to stop weak, uncoordinated beating (fibrillation) of the heart and allow restoration of a normal heart beat. Part of the “crash cart” at cardiac rehabilitation program sites.
Dehydration: The condition resulting from the excessive loss of body water.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): Ruled a drug (hormone) by the FDA, DHEA is the second most abundant steroid molecule in humans. The ruling is controversial because, whereas hormones tend to be held in reserve in the gland which produced them, and liberated as needed, DHEA is produced by the adrenal gland and immediately released into the bloodstream for cellular metabolism. Research tends to support its anti-obesity, anti-aging, energizing, memory-enhancing, immune boosting, cardiotonic and anti-carcinogenic activities. Nowadays it’s widely available outside the USA as a nutritional supplement. However, DHEA is apparently legal without a script here in the USA, as well. The studies were done on older men. DHEA is produced in the body until age 25 then ceases.
Deltoids: The large triangular muscles of the shoulder which raise the arm away from the body and is a prime mover in all arm elevation movements.
Depletion: Exhaustion following a workout before the body has fully recuperated. Never train when feeling depleted.
Depression: Downward movement of a part of the body.
Detraining: The process of losing the benefits of training by returning to a sedentary life.
Diastole: Relaxation phase of the heart. See also systole.
Diastolic blood pressure: The pressure exerted against the arterial walls between beats when no blood is ejected from the heart or through the vessels (diastole).
Diet: The food one eats. May or may not be a selection of foods to accomplish a particular health or fitness objective.
Dietary Reference Intakes (dris): Current recommendations for the intake of vitamins and minerals; replaced the Recommended Dietary Allowances.
Digestion: The process of mechanical or chemical breakdown of food into absorbable molecules.
Digestive System: System consisting of the digestive tract and glands that secrete digestive juices into the digestive tract. Responsible for the breakdown of foods and waste elimination.
Diplegia: Paralysis/paresis of all four extremities, with more severe involvement of the lower extremities.
Directionality: The ability to determine directions and locations in the environment (e.g., left, right, up, down, over, under, across, through). The concept of moving right or left.
Distal: Farthest away from the point of reference.
Diuretic: Any agent which increases the flow of urine. Used ill-advisedly for quick weight loss, diuretics can cause dehydration.
DL-Phenylalanine (DLPA): A mixture consisting of equal parts of the D- and L-forms of phenylalanine. Phenylalanine is a naturally occurring amino acid, discovered in 1879, essential for optimal growth in infants and for nitrogen equilibrium in human adults. DLPA is used in the control of pain, through a mechanism believed to involve a sparing effect on opiate-like substances naturally secreted by the brain (i.e., endorphins and enkephalins).
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): A complex protein present in the nuclei of cells. The chemical basis of heredity and carrier of genetic programming for the organism.
Dorsiflexion: Turning upward to the foot or toes or of the hand or fingers.
Dorsal: Pertaining to the posterior portion of a body or segment.
Dorsum: The upper, outer surface of an organ, appendage, or body part.
Double Split Training: Working out twice a day to allow for shorter, more intense workouts. See also Variable Split.
Downward rotation: Movement of the scapula as the arms are lowered, and the superior border of the scapula moves away from the midline (spine).
Dry-Bulb Thermometer: An ordinary instrument for indicating temperature. Does not take into account humidity and other factors that combine to determine the heat stress experienced by the body. See also wet-bulb thermometer, wet-globe temperature.
Dumbbell: Weight used for exercising, consisting of rigid handle about 14” long with sometimes detachable metal discs at each end.
Duration: The time spent in a single exercise session. Duration, along with frequency and intensity, are factors affecting the effectiveness of exercise.
Duty of care: Obligation to demonstrate an appropriate standard of care.
Dysfunction: Difficult function, improper function, or non-function.
Dynamic stretching: Similar to ballistic stretching in that it utilizes speed of movement, but dynamic stretching avoids bouncing and includes movements specific to a sport or movement pattern.
Dyspnoea: Difficult or laboured breathing.
Dyslipidaemia: Abnormal lipid (fat) levels in the blood, lipoprotein composition, or both.
Dystonic spasm: Brief recurring muscle contractions that result in twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posture.
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Eccentric: A contraction in which a muscle lengthens and is overcome by a resistance.
Eccentric Action: Muscle action in which the muscle resists while it is forced to lengthen. This action is commonly called “negative” work, or “eccentric contraction;” but since the muscle is lengthening, the word “contraction” is misapplied. See also concentric action, isometric action.
Ectomorph: A thin person with a lean physique and light musculature.
Efferent System: System designed to cause action; consists of the somatic and autonomic systems.
Efficiency: The ratio of energy consumed to the work accomplished. Exercisers utilizing the same amounts of oxygen may differ in their speed or amount of weight moved in a given time because of differing efficiencies.
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA): A fatty acid found in fish and fish oils which is believed to lower cholesterol, especially cholesterol bound to low density lipoproteins (LDL).
Ejection Fraction: The percentage of blood inside the heart’s left ventricle that is pushed out into the body after contraction. The average training athlete, working at 80 percent maximum, ejects about 75%. This factor is positively affected by either anaerobic or aerobic training.
Elastin: Elastic fibrous protein found in connective tissue.
Elasticity: The ability of a muscle fibre to return to original resting length after a passive stretch.
Electrocardiogram (EKG, ECG): A graph of the electrical activity caused by the stimulation of the heart muscle. The millivolts of electricity are detected by electrodes on the body surface and are recorded by an electrocardiograph.
Electrolytes: Minerals such as sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium that provide conductivity functions for fluid passage (osmosis) through cellular membranes.
Electron Microscope: A microscope that uses electrons instead of visible light to produce powerfully-magnified images of objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light.
Electron transport: The passing of electrons over a membrane aiding in a reaction to recover free energy for the synthesis of ATP, A series of oxidative reactions that re-phosphorylate ADP to ATP.
Endocrine: Refers to a secretion that flows directly into the bloodstream. It is the opposite of exocrine.
Endocrine Glands: Organs which secrete hormones into the blood or lymph systems to regulate or influence general chemical changes in the body or the activities of other organs. Major glands are the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, parathyroid, pancreas, ovaries, and testicles.
Endocrine System: System consisting of the glands and tissues that release hormones. It works with the nervous system in regulating metabolic activities.
End-diastolic volume: The volume of blood from the left atrium that is available to be pumped by the left ventricle.
Endomysium: The connective tissue encasing individual muscle fibres.
Endomorph: A heavyset person with a predominantly round and soft physique.
Endorphins: Brain chemicals that ease or suppress pain. D-phenylalanine and L-phenylalanine, amino acids, intensifies and prolongs the effects of these natural painkillers.
Endurance: The capacity to continue a physical performance over a period of time. See also aerobic endurance, anaerobic endurance.
Energy: The capacity to produce work.
Enzyme: Any of numerous proteins or conjugated proteins produced by living organisms and functioning as biochemical catalysts.
Epidemiological Studies: Statistical study of the relationships between various factors that determine the frequency and distribution of disease. For example, such studies have linked exercise to reduced mortality.
Epinephrine: A hormone produced by the adrenal gland that causes the “flight or fight” response.
Epiphyseal Plates: The sites of new bone growth, separated from the main bone by cartilage during the growth period. This is a potential injury site to be avoided in prescribing exercise to prepubescent individuals.
Epiphyses: The ends of long bones, usually wider than the shaft of the bone.
Epilepsy: Two or more unprovoked, recurring seizures.
Epimysium: The connective tissue encasing the entire muscle body.
Equilibrium Reactions (Cortical): The automatic movements which keep one balanced during static and dynamic postures such as sitting, standing, and walking. Involves automatic responses of the head, trunk and limbs.
Ergogenesis: Substances and practices that improve sports performance are called ergogenic aids. Ergogenesis is a word coined by Dr. Fred Hatfield in the mid 80s which refers to a “genesis” (new beginning) for athletes attempting to divorce themselves of steroid use by utilizing nutritional, psychological, and biomechanical training technologies.
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Faint: See syncope.
False grip: A grip in which the thumb is not wrapped around the bar but instead is placed next to the index finger.
Fascia: Connective tissue which surrounds muscles and various organs of the body.
Fasciculus or fascicle: Bundle of muscle fibres; plural of fasciculus is fasciculi.
Fast-Twitch Fibres: Muscle fibre type that contracts quickly and is used most in intensive, short-duration exercises, such as weightlifting or sprints. See also slow-twitch fibres.
Fat: 1. A white or yellowish tissue which stores reserve energy, provides padding for organs, and smooths body contours.
2. A compound of glycerol and various fatty acids. Dietary fat is not as readily converted to energy as are carbohydrates. One of the three basic foodstuffs (along with carbohydrates and protein). The most concentrated source of energy in the diet, furnishing twice the calories of carbs or proteins. The components of fat are fatty acids: saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are generally solid at room temperature and are derived primarily from animal sources. Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, are usually liquid and come from vegetable, nut, or seed sources. Fat deposits surround and protect organs such as the kidneys, heart and liver. Fats are the primary substance of adipose tissue. A layer of fat beneath the skin, known as subcutaneous fat, insulates the body from environmental temperature changes thereby preserving body heat.
Fat (total): Describes the fat consumed from both saturated and unsaturated sources. High intake of total dietary fat increases risk of obesity, some types of cancer, and possibly gallbladder disease.
Fat-Free Weight: Lean body mass including muscles, bones, and organs.
Fatigue: A loss of ability to continue a given level of physical workload or performance.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K: vitamins which can be dissolved in fats or fatty tissue.
Fatty Acid: Any of a large group of monobasic acids, especially those found in animal and vegetable fats and oils. One of the building blocks of fat. Used as fuel for muscle contractions. (See Essential Fatty Acids)
Feedback: The knowledge of results or awareness
Feedback loop: Section of a control system that serves as a regulatory mechanism; return input as some of the output.
Fibre (dietary): Dietary fibre is the edible parts of plants or analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. Dietary fibre includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin, and associated plant substances. Dietary fibre promote beneficial physiological effects including laxation, and/or blood cholesterol attenuation, and/or blood glucose attenuation.
Fibre (muscle): The long and string-like muscle cells which contract to produce strength. They range from microscopic size to one foot long. There are several hundred to several thousand individual groups (fasciculi) of fibres in each major muscle structure. These groups are something like pieces of string bound tightly together inside a protective sheath.
Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS): A chronic and often disabling condition characterized by widespread body pain and severe fatigue.
Fick equation: Q = VO ÷ a–v-O difference.
Field test: An assessment that is performed away from the laboratory and does not require extensive training or expensive equipment.
First-class lever: A lever for which the applied and resistive forces act on opposite sides of the fulcrum.
Five-point body contact position: Proper body positioning to maximize stability and spinal sup- port in supine and seated exercises.
Flexibility: The ability of a joint to move through an optimum range of motion (ROM).
Fitness: Good health or physical condition, especially as the result of exercise and proper nutrition.
Fitness Testing: Measuring the indicators of the various aspects of fitness. See also graded exercise test, physical work capacity.
Flex: Contracting a muscle (or muscles) isometrically, as in bodybuilding competition. It can also refer to joint movement. See also flexion.
Flexibility: The range of motion around a joint.
Flexion: A movement which moves the two ends of a jointed body part closer to each other, as in bending the arm. The act of flexing or bending. See also extension.
Fluid ball: The abdominal fluids and tissue that are kept under pressure by the diaphragm and abdominal muscles to support the vertebral column from the inside out.
Flush: Cleansing a muscle of metabolic toxins by increasing the blood supply to it through exertion.
Folic Acid: A B-complex vitamin essential in formation of red blood cells and metabolism of protein. Important for proper brain function, mental and emotional health, appetite, and production of hydrochloric acid. Very often deficient in diets. RDA: 400 micrograms. Dietary sources: green leafy vegetables, liver, brewer’s yeast.
Food Allergies: Sensitivities to certain foods which can cause both mental and physical symptoms.
Foot-Pound: The amount of work required to lift one pound one foot.
Force: Mechanical action applied to a body that tends to produce acceleration.
Forced Repetitions: Assistance to perform additional repetitions of an exercise when muscles can no longer complete movement on their own.
Forced repetitions: Repetitions that are success- fully completed with assistance from a spotter.
Forced vital capacity: The volume of air moved that results from maximal inspiration and maximal expiration.
Free Radicals: Highly reactive molecules which target your tissues’ protein bonds, the DNA in your cells’ nuclei and the important polyunsaturated fatty acids within your cells’ membranes. Once initiated, a chain reaction begins that ultimately results in the total destruction of that cell. Scientists have determined that over 60 age-related maladies are a direct result of long-term damage resulting from free radical activity. There are seven different “species” of free radicals: Superoxide Anion Radical, Hydrogen Peroxide, Hydroxyl Radical, Singlet Oxygen, Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Radical, Organic /Fatty Acid Hydroperoxides, and Oxidized Protein.
Frank-Starling mechanism: The mechanism by which the stroke volume of the heart increases proportionally to the volume of blood filling the heart (the end-diastolic volume).
Freestyle (front crawl): A swimming stroke with a straight and prone body position, an overhand arm motion, and a flutter kick.
Freestyle Training: Training all body parts in one workout (obsolete phrase).
Frequency: The number of workouts performed in a given time period (typically one week).
Frequency: How often a person repeats a complete exercise session (e.g., 3 times per week). Frequency, along with duration and intensity, affect the effectiveness of exercise.
Friction: The resistance to motion of two objects or surfaces that touch.
Frontal (coronal) plane: Separates the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Fructose: Fruit sugar.
Fulcrum: The point about which a lever pivots.
Functional anatomy: The relation between body structures and their function, particularly with respect to movement.
Functional Capacity: Also known as maximal oxygen uptake or (VO2 Max) the maximal capacity for oxygen consumption by the body during maximal exertion. Also known as aerobic power, maximal oxygen intake, max oxygen consumption, and cardiorespiratory endurance capacity.
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Gamma Oryzanol: A substance extracted from rice bran oil which some athletes believe has nonsteroidal, growth-promoting properties when taken as a supplement. It allegedly helps increase lean body mass and strength, decreases fatty tissue, improves recovery from workouts, and reduces post-workout muscle soreness, particularly among female athletes.
General warm-up: A type of warm-up that involves performing basic activities requiring movement of the major muscle groups (e.g., jogging, cycling, or jumping rope).
Gestational diabetes mellitus: The onset of a diabetic condition that occurs only during pregnancy.
Ginkgo Biloba: Native to China and Japan, the ginkgo tree lives over 1000 years! The active component of ginkgo leaves is quercetin and the flavoglycosides. Ginkgo extract is shown to 1) reduce clots or thrombi formation in the veins and arteries, 2) increase cellular energy by increasing cellular glucose and ATP, 3) scavenge free radicals, 4) prevent the formation of free radicals, 5) reduce high blood pressure, and 6) promote peripheral blood flow (especially to the brain), which also ameliorates inner ear problems. Ginkgo also has been shown to improve alertness, short-term memory, and various cognitive disorders.
Glandular: Of, relating to, affecting, or resembling a gland or its secretion.
Glucagon: A hormone produced by the pancreas that stimulates an increase in blood sugar levels, thus opposing the action of insulin. Liver glucose is freed when the blood sugar level drops to around 70 milligrams/100 milligrams of blood. Exercise and starvation both increase glucagon levels, as does the presence of amino acids in the blood after a high protein meal. Glucagon produces smooth muscle relaxation when administered parenterally.
Gluconeogenesis: Chemical process that converts lactate and pyruvate back into glucose. When glycogen (sugar stored in muscles) stores are low, glucose for emergency energy is synthesized from protein and the glycerol portion of fat molecules. This is one important reason that ATP/CP athletes and glycolytic athletes are warned to stay away from undue aerobic exercise: it’s muscle-wasting.
Glucose: Principal circulating sugar in the blood and the major energy source of the body.
Glucosamine: A substance that occurs naturally in the human body and helps to keep cartilage spongy.
Glucose (blood sugar): A simple sugar, the breakdown product of carbohydrates that becomes the raw material for energy production inside cells.
Glucose Polymers: A low glycaemic carbohydrate supplement that delivers a steady source of energy for workouts and restoration. “Branching” glucose polymers (i.e., glucose molecules comprised of differing glycaemic indexes due to their structural complexity) are available as drinks, powders, and tablets.
Glucose Tolerance: Refers to an individual’s ability to metabolize glucose.
Glucose-Lactate Cycle (Cori Cycle): The metabolic partnership between muscles and liver to support active muscle work. Refers to the sequence involving breakdown of carbohydrates, glycogen storage in liver, passage of glucose into the bloodstream and subsequent storage in muscle fibres as glycogen, the breakdown of glycogen during muscle activity, the production of lactic acid in this process, and the conversion of lactic acid to glycogen again.
Gluteal(s): Abbreviation for gluteus maximus, medius and minimus; the hip extensor muscles. Also called buttocks or glutes.
Glycaemic Index: A rating system that indicates the different speed with which carbohydrates are processed into glucose by the body. In general, complex carbohydrates are broken down slower, providing a slow infusion of glucose for steady energy. Refined, simple carbohydrates usually are absorbed quickly, causing energy-disturbing fluctuations of glucose.
Glycogen: The common storage form of glucose in the liver and muscles that is biochemically processed as part of the energy-producing cycle. Glycogen, a polysaccharide commonly called animal starch, is readily converted into glucose as the energy needs of the body require.
Glycogen Granule: Structure of the cell that stores glycogen and enzymes for glycogen breakdown and synthesis.
Glycogenolysis: Process describing the cleavage of glucose from the glycogen molecule. The cellular breakdown of stored glycogen for energy, which is regulated by the enzyme phosphorylase.
Glycolysis: The metabolic process that creates energy via splitting a molecule of glucose to form either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and produce ATP molecules. Glycolysis in an important part of anaerobic metabolism.
Glycolytic Pathway: Glucose is broken down to produce energy anaerobically.
Glycolytic Sports: Sports such as wrestling, boxing, 200-meter dash and other long sprint or mid-distance sprints wherein the glycolytic pathway of muscle energy production (the breakdown of muscle sugar, glycogen, to produce more CP and ATP) is involved (see glycogen, ATP and CP).
Goal repetitions: The number of repetitions a client is assigned to perform for an exercise.
Goal setting: A strategy for increasing the level of participation or causing a behavioural change.
Golgi Tendon Organs: Nerve sensors (“proprioceptors”), located at the junction of muscles and tendons, that pick-up messages of excess stress on the muscle and cause the brain to shut off muscle contraction. The purpose may be to protect against separating the tendon from bone when a contraction is too great. Called “the feedback loop,” this shut-off threshold can be pushed back or delayed (e.g., toward one’s maximum strength potential) through “jerk training,” where you carefully perform repeated sub maximum jerks with weights. See also muscle spindle, proprioceptor.
Gompterz Law: Refers to a phenomenon observed years ago by an actuary named Benjamin Gompterz. He observed that death rates for human populations doubled every decade between the ages of 20 and 80. However it has recently been observed that this phenomenon does not apply to the oldest old (those older than 85). As a group, those who have advanced to extreme old age are healthier than the population two decades younger (age 65).
Graded Exercise Test (GXT): A treadmill, or cycle-ergometer, test that delivers heart rate, ECG, and other data. Workload is gradually increased until an increase in workload is not followed by an increase in oxygen consumption; this identifies the individual’s maximal oxygen uptake. Allows the prescribing of exercise to the individual’s actual, rather than estimated, heart rate or aerobic capacity. Requires medical supervision. See also physical work capacity.
Grand Mal (Tonic-Clonic) Seizure: One of the more serious forms of epilepsy which involves stiffening and convulsions of the body.
Green Tea: Also known as GTA (green tea antioxidant) or GTE (green tea extract), has been clinically shown to be as much as 200 times more effective than vitamin E at scavenging hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion radicals (see Free radicals). As such, it is perhaps the most potent antioxidant known to man in its ability to prevent 1) antibacterial and antiviral activity, 2) anti-platelet and hypocholesterolaemia activity, 3) lung cancer due to smoking, 4) skin damage and skin cancer due to radiation, 5) a host of other age-related maladies. The active ingredients of green tea are called polyphenol catechins, with Epigallocatechin Gallate (egcg) being by far the most important. Green tea is unprocessed; black tea is the same plant but highly processed; Oolong tea, also from the same plant, is partially processed tea.
Grip width: The distance between the hands when placed on a bar.
Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI): A device to protect against electrocution that cuts off an electric current when there is a difference between the amount of electricity passing through the device and returning through the device, or when there is a leakage of current from the circuit.
Growth Hormone (HGH or GH): A growth hormone is any substance that stimulates growth, especially one secreted by the pituitary (somatotropin) which exerts a direct effect on protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism, and controls the rate of skeletal, connective (collagenous) tissue and body weight gain.
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Habilitation: Maximizing the potential of an individual who is disabled from birth.
Hamstring: The big muscle along the back of your upper leg which extend from above the hip to below the knee.
Hayflick Limit: Refers to a phenomenon that occurs when human cells are grown in tissue culture. Under these conditions it is observed that the population can only double a limited number of times (around 50) before the cells senesce, becoming unable to grow any more. It is named after noted biogerontologist Leonard Hayflick.
Health Risk Appraisal: A procedure that gathers information about a person’s behaviours, family history, and other characteristics known to be associated with the incidence of serious disease, and uses that information to compare the individual’s present risk with the lower risk that is possible to be achieved by changing certain behaviours.
Health appraisal: Process to screen a client for risk factors and symptoms of chronic cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, and orthopaedic diseases in order to optimize safety during exercise testing and participation.
Heart Attack: An acute episode of any kind of heart disease.
Heart Rate: The number of times your heart beats in one minute.
Heart Rate Reserve: The difference between the resting heart rate and the maximal heart rate.
Heart rate reserve (HRR): The difference between a client’s maximal heart rate and his or her resting heart rate (i.e., APMHR − RHR).
High-density lipoproteins (hdls): Proteins produced in the liver that contain the largest amount of protein and the smallest amount of cholesterol; when elevated, these contribute to a decreased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Heat Cramps: Muscle twitching or painful cramping, usually following heavy exercise with profuse sweating. The legs, arms, and abdominal muscles are the most often affected.
Heat Stroke: A life threatening illness when the body’s temperature-regulating mechanisms fail. Body temperature may rise to over 104 degrees F, skin appears red, dry, and warm to the touch. The victim has chills, sometimes nausea and dizziness, and may be confused or irrational. Seizures and coma may follow unless temperature is brought down to 102 degrees within an hour.
Heat Syncope: Fainting from the heat. When a lot of blood is sent to the skin for cooling, and the person becomes inactive enough to allow blood to pool in the legs, the heart may not receive enough blood to supply the brain. Once the person is in a horizontal position, consciousness is regained quickly.
Helping Synergy: When two muscles contract together to create one movement.
Hemiplegia: Paralysis of one side of the body.
Haemoglobin: An oxygen-transporting protein found in blood cells. Haemoglobin is a crystallizable, conjugated protein consisting of an iron-containing pigment called heme and a simple protein, globin. It is the pigment of red blood cells. Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
Herbs: An often-used definition is any part of a plant which can be used as a medical treatment, nutrient, food seasoning or dye. However, this definition is too short-sighted to be relevant to the needs of otherwise healthy athletes whose major objective in life is to excel in their respective sports. You can use herbs to enhance your performance in many ways.
High Blood Pressure: Abnormally high blood pressure. It is usually defined as systolic pressure above 140 mm Hg or diastolic pressure above 90 mm Hg in adults. See also hypertension.
High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): A type of lipoprotein that seems to provide protection against the build-up of atherosclerotic fat deposits in the arteries. Exercise seems to increase the HDL fraction of total cholesterol. HDL contains high levels of protein and low levels of triglycerides and cholesterol. See also lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein.
Homeostasis: The automatic tendency to maintain a relatively constant internal environment. Example: A build-up of carbon dioxide increases the respiration rate to eliminate it and draw in more oxygen.
Hormones: Hormones are chemical substances which originate in an organ, gland, or body part, and are conveyed by the blood to affect functions in other parts of the body.
Horsepower: A work rate measure equal to 746 watts, or about 550 foot-pounds per second.
Horizontal abduction: The movement of the arms from horizontally across the body. Starting from a position where the shoulders are flexed at 90 degrees, hands extended in front of the body, moving in the transverse plane to end in a position where the arms are flexed at 90 degrees out to the side of the body.
Human Growth Hormone (hgh): A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in response to various stressful stimuli such as heat, starvation and intense physical stress (e.g., exercise), as well as by an innate pulsatile periodicity. The principal functions of HGH are to stimulate anabolism and to mobilize stored fat (triglycerides) for energy, thus sparing muscle glycogen.
Hydroxycitrate (HCA): Sometimes referred to as hydroxycitric acid: a natural fruit acid found in abundance in the Brindall berry, the fruit of the Garcinia Cambogia plant (found in India primarily). HCA is cited in the research as able to inhibit lipid (fat) synthesis. Possible mechanisms for this effect may be 1) an appetite suppressant response due to enhanced gluconeogenesis which would promote a feeling of satiety, and 2) inhibition of certain enzymes necessary for biosynthesizing fat.
Hyperextension: Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit.
Hyperglycaemia: Abnormally high level of glucose in the blood (high blood sugar). The clinical hallmark of diabetes mellitus. Usually defined as a blood sugar value exceeding 140 mg/dl.
Hyperplasia (muscle splitting): A controversial subject among sports scientists regarding the possibility of muscle fibres to split, giving more strength from increased contractile potential and/or connective tissue. An increase in number of cells in a tissue or organ, excluding tumour formation, whereby bulk of the part or organ may be increased.
Hypertension: Persistent high blood pressure. Readings as low as 140/90 millimetres of mercury is considered a threshold for high blood pressure by some authorities. See also blood pressure.
Hyperthermia: Body temperatures exceeding normal. See heat cramps, exhaustion, heat stroke, and heat syncope. See also hypothermia.
Hypertonic: Describes a solution concentrated enough to draw water out of body cells. See also osmolarity.
Hypertrophy (general): An enlargement of a body part or organ by the increase in size of the cells that make it up. See also atrophy.
Hypertrophy (muscle): Increase in both gross muscle size as well as individual muscle cell size resulting from training (especially weight training); due to the adaptive process whereby, the muscles add more mitochondria, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, interstitial substances such as water, fat, satellite cells, etc. In response to highly specific forms of stress.
Hypervitaminosis: Undesirable symptoms caused by an excess of certain (typically fat soluble) vitamins.
Hyperinsulinemia: High levels of insulin in the blood.
Hyperlaxity: Condition that allows the joints of the body to achieve a range of motion that exceeds the normal range of motion.
Hyperlipidaemia: Elevated concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoproteins, or a combination of these.
Hyperplasia: An increase in the number of muscle fibres.
Hypertension: A systolic blood pressure of ≥140 mmhg or a diastolic blood pressure of ≥90 mmhg (or both).
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Condition of unknown cause resulting in thickening in a part of the muscle of the heart.
Hypertrophy: An increase in cross-sectional area of the muscle fibre.
Hyperventilation: Abnormal, prolonged deep breathing that causes a depletion of carbon dioxide, a fall in blood pressure, and possible fainting.
Hypnotherapy: An effective method to shed accumulated negativity and self-doubt that can limit confidence and performance potential.
Hypoglycaemia: Literally means “low blood glucose level.” There are two general categories of this disorder: fasting (or spontaneous) and reactive. In fasting hypo-glycemia, serum glucose levels are low in the fasting state (for example, before breakfast). This form of hypoglycaemia is relatively uncommon and is not what most people generally refer to when they claim to have “hypoglycaemic symptoms.” In reactive hypoglycaemia, fasting glucose levels are normal. They become abnormally low only in reaction to the increased serum levels of glucose which follow the ingestion of a meal.
Hypothermia: Body temperature below normal. Usually due to exposure to cold temperatures, especially after exhausting ready energy supplies. See also hyperthermia.
Hypotonic: Describes a solution dilute enough to allow its water to be absorbed by body cells. See also osmolarity.
Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen flow to the tissues, even though blood flow is adequate. See also ischemia.
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Idiopathic: Cause of injury unknown.
Iliac: Refers to the area of the hip bones on either side of the body.
Iliac Crest: The upper, wide portion of the hip bone.
Impulse-Inertial Training: A system originally designed for NASA space stations (where there’s no gravity: dumbbells and barbells would be useless in space) whereby a moving, weighted sled is alternately moved very rapidly back and forth on a set of tracks in order to effectively improve starting strength (see starting strength).
Inertia: The tendency of an object to remain in its current state (in motion or at rest).
Infarction: Death of a section of tissue from the obstruction of blood flow (ischemia) to the area. See also myocardial infarction.
Inferior: Away from the head; relatively lower in position.
Inflammation: Body’s local response to injury. Acute inflammation is characterized by pain, with heat, redness, swelling and loss of function. Uncontrolled swelling may cause further damage to tissues at the injury site.
Innervation: Nerve stimulation of a muscle.
Informed Consent: A procedure for obtaining a client’s signed consent to a fitness centre’s prescription and leadership of his/her program. Includes a description of the objectives and procedures, with associated benefits and risks, stated in plain language, with a consent statement and signature line in a single document.
Inosine: A naturally-occurring compound found in the body that contributes to strong heart muscle contraction and blood flow in the coronary arteries. As a supplement taken before and during workouts and competition, it stimulates enzyme activity in both cardiac and skeletal muscle cells for improved regeneration of ATP. What this means in training terms is that you’ll be able to get a rep or two more out of yourself in each set. It means that you’ll be able to do your wind sprints with greater stamina. Better workouts equal better gains.
Inositol: A B complex vitamin. Combines with choline to form lecithin, protecting against the fatty hardening of arteries and cholesterol build-up. Important in the nutrition of brain cells. Promotes healthy hair. No RDA. Dietary sources: liver, brewer’s yeast, dried lima beans, beef brains and heart, cantaloupe.
Insertion: The distal attachment; generally considered the most moveable part or the part that attaches furthest from the midline or centre of the body.
Insulin: A peptide hormone made of two polypeptide chains, and is secreted from the beta cells of the pancreas. The function of insulin is to increase the ability of certain organs, such as muscles and the liver, to utilize glucose and amino acids. Insulin also increases the total quantity of protein in the body by increasing the flow of amino acids into cells, accelerating messenger RNA translation, and increasing DNA transcription to form more RNA. Insulin is essential for the proper metabolism and proper maintenance level of blood sugar.
Insulin-Like Growth Factors (IGF-I & IGF-II): Thought to be distributed into the interstitial spaces surrounding muscle cells (especially Type iib fibres) damaged by severe stress (especially eccentric contractions). Their collective function is to ensure fusion between the nearby satellite cells with the damaged fibre, thereby decreasing that fibre’s proneness to injury. It is theorized to be the single most contributory factor in muscle hypertrophy.
Integumentary system: Bodily system consisting of the skin and its associated structures, such as the hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
Intensity: The rate of performing work; power. A function of energy output per unit of time.
Intermittent exercise—Several shorter bouts of exercise interspersed with rest periods.
Interval Training: An exercise session in which the intensity and duration of exercise are consciously alternated between harder and easier work. Often used to improve aerobic capacity and/or anaerobic endurance in exercisers who already have a base of endurance training.
Intramuscular \ Intracellular Friction: The natural friction between and within muscle fibres caused by contraction (especially eccentric contraction). Leads to some reduction in strength output. The greatest amount of friction occurs in eccentric movements, such as the lowering of weights, where the muscle lengthens against resistance. This can be very damaging to contractile components inside fibres, and to the fibres themselves (called “microtrauma”).
Inversion: A turning inward, upside down, or in any direction contrary to the existing one.
Involuntary muscle tissues: Receive nerve fibres from the autonomic nervous system and cannot be voluntarily controlled, except in a few rare cases. (e.g., the heart)
Iodine: An essential element for the function of the thyroid gland, which regulates metabolism and energy. RDA: 150 micrograms. Dietary sources: All seafood, kelp.
Ion: An atom or molecule which carries an electric charge; it can be either a cation or an anion. The most important cations in the body are sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium (the electrolytes). The most important anions in the body are bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate, and sulphate.
Iron: Combines with protein and copper to make haemoglobin, a pigment that colours the blood red and which carries oxygen through the bloodstream from the lungs to all bodily tissue. Also forms myoglobin, which transports oxygen in muscle tissue for use in fuelling contractions. Deficiency is common in athletes. Without enough iron, you cannot train. Iron is easily lost through sweat, urine, faeces, and menstrual flow. Runners in particular are suspected of inefficient absorption of dietary iron. RDA: 10 mg. (men), 18 mg. (women). Dietary sources: liver, oysters, lean meat, leafy green vegetables, whole grains, dried fruits, legumes.
Ipsilateral: Situated on the same side.
Ischemia: Inadequate blood flow to a body part, caused by constriction or obstruction of a blood vessel. See also hypoxia.
Isokinetic Contraction: A muscle contraction against a resistance that moves at a constant velocity, so that the maximum force of which the muscle is capable throughout the range of motion may be applied. See also isotonic contraction.
Isokinetic Exercise: Exercise equipment using accommodating resistance technology. For example, Keiser equipment uses compressed air to provide accommodating resistance. With this form of isokinetic movement, the harder you push the harder the machine resists, providing the net effect of controlling the speed of movement. See also Accommodating Resistance.
Isometric Contraction: A muscular contraction in which the muscle retains its length while increasing in tension, but no movement occurs. Also called static contraction.
Isotonic Contraction: A concentric muscular contraction in which the load remains constant but the tension varies with the joint angle. Also called dynamic contraction.
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Jerk: The part of the Olympic lift known as the “clean and jerk,” where the lifter drives the barbell from his or her shoulders overhead to a locked position.
Joint: Formed where two bones come together. Not all joints have the same range of motion, and some joints don’t move at all. The range of motion of a joint is limited by the structure of the bone and the attachment of muscle to bone.
Joint Capsules: A sac-like enclosure around a joint that holds synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.
Joint Cavity: The space between bones that is encapsulated by a synovial membrane and articular cartilage..
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Karvonen formula: A method to determine exercise heart rate that takes into consideration a client’s age and resting heart rate.
Kegels: Exercises for the muscles of the pelvic floor that involve alternately tightening and relaxing the pelvic region muscle groups.
Ketone: Bodies produced as intermediate products of fat metabolism. They are normally created in limited amounts when fat is oxidized. However, in drastic conditions where carbohydrate is insufficient or unavailable for energy needs such as starvation or untreated diabetes, excessive amounts of fat are oxidized and ketone bodies accumulate. This condition is known as ketosis, where a condition brought about by the restriction of carbohydrate intake, resulting in excessive acetones or other ketone bodies being secreted by the body; stored fat becomes more available for energy.
Ketosis: An elevated level of ketone bodies in the tissues. Seen in sufferers of starvation or diabetes, and a symptom brought about in dieters on very low carbohydrate diets.
Kilocalorie (kcal): A unit of measurement used in metabolic studies, being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. It is 1,000 times larger than the small calorie used in chemistry and physics. The term is used in nutrition to express the fuel or energy value of food.
Kilogram (kg): A unit of weight equal to 2.204623 pounds; 1,000 grams (g).
Kilogram-meters (kg•m): The amount of work required to lift one kilogram one meter.
Kilopond-meters (kp•m): Equivalent to kilogram-metres, in normal gravity.
Kinematics: Description of motion with respect to space and time, and without regard to the forces or torques involved.
Kinetics: Assessment of motion with regard to forces and force-related measures.
Kinesiology: The science or study of movement, and the active and passive structures involved, also referred to as biomechanics.
Kinesthesis: The ability to perceive the position or movement of body parts and the amount of force exerted by the muscles.
Knee Wraps: Elastic strips used to wrap knees for better support when performing squats and dead lifts.
Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle): Refers to a complicated series of 8 reactions, arranged in a cycle, by which fragments from any of the energy nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are completely broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy for the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is the final common pathway for all nutrient metabolites involved in energy production, and provides more than 90% of the body’s energy. This is the oxidative portion of energy production where short carbon chains from the breakdown of glucose, fatty acids, and protein are broken down and the energy is used to form more ATP. Oxygen is involved in this phase of metabolism where hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form water. This process takes place in the mitochondria.
Korotkoff sounds: Vibrations that are heard, through the use of a stethoscope, as a result of blood flow through a constricted artery.
Kyphosis: An excessive posterior curve of the thoracic (upper) spine.
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Lactate: Lactic acid is an acid with the chemical formula C3H6O3. Lactate is any salt of lactic acid. When lactic acid releases H+ the remaining compound joins with Na+ or K+ to form salt. Anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid but it quickly dissociates and the salt-lactate is formed. For this reason, the terms are used interchangeably.
Lactate threshold: The point during a graded exercise test at which the blood lactate concentration suddenly increases; a good indicator of the highest sustainable work load the individual can perform.
Lactic Acid: A by-product of glucose and glycogen metabolism in anaerobic muscle energetics. A minute accumulation causes muscular fatigue and pain, and retards contraction. Lactic acid is carried by the blood to the liver, where it is reconverted to glucose and returned as blood glucose to the muscles. It is this elevation of blood lactic acid in sustained strenuous exercise, such as in marathon running, which results in muscle fatigue and pain. Recovery follows when enough oxygen gets to the muscle, part of the lactic acid being oxidized and most of it then being built up once more into glycogen. The metabolic cooperation between contracting skeletal muscle and the liver to support active muscle work is called the Cori cycle.
Lactose: A disaccharide of milk which on hydrolysis yields glucose and galactose. Bacteria can convert it into lactic acid and butyric acid, as in the souring of milk. It is used in infant feeding formulas, in other foods and as an osmotic laxative and diuretic. Lactose is not tolerated in many persons after weaning, owing to a reduced lactase activity.
Laterality: The awareness of the sides of the body – right, left, front, back, side, top, bottom.
Lateral flexion: Flexing the trunk or neck to either side in the frontal plane.
Lats: Short for latissimus dorsi, the large muscles of the back that are the prime movers for adduction, extension and hyperextension of the shoulder joints.
Law of Gaseous Diffusion: Principle that states that a gas will move across a semipermeable membrane (alveolar, capillary, etc.) From an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.
L-carnitine: Neither an amino acid nor a vitamin, L-carnitine is a derivative of hydroxybutyric acid. It is naturally obtained from red meat, and helps release stored bodyfat (triglycerides) into the bloodstream for use in cellular energy processing. Its physiological role is to transport long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria for energy production. This is believed to improve one’s fat metabolism (lower body fat level) as well as long-term energy level. Research has also shown L-carnitine to have a value in treating certain cardiovascular disorders, including hardening of the arteries.
L-glutamine: An amino acid that reduces the effects of cortisol, which results in less tissue breakdown-anti-catabolic action.
Lean Body Mass: All of you, except your fat. Includes bone, brain, organs, skin, nails, muscle, all bodily tissues. Approximately 50-60% of lean body mass is water.
Lean Body Weight: The weight of the body, less the weight of its fat.
Leg: The portion of the lower limb between the knee and the foot.
Left Ventricle Ejection Fraction: The percentage of blood inside the left ventricle pushed out into the body after contraction.
Leukocyte: Cell whose primary function is to combat infections.
Lever: A rigid object (bone), hinged at one point (joint) to which forces (via muscle contraction or resistance) are applied at two other points. A lever transmits and modifies force or motion, and has three parts: 1) a fulcrum, 2) a force arm and 3) a resistance arm. There are three classes of levers, depending on the location of the three parts relative to each other.
Ligament: The fibrous, connective tissue that connects bone to bone, or bone to cartilage, to hold together and support joints. See also tendon.
Limiting factor: A characteristic that determines the upper limit of performance on a particular task, exercise, etc. (muscle fibre type, cardiac output, and oxygen uptake).
Limit Strength: Absolute strength enhanced by hypnosis, electrotherapy, ergogenic substances of any form (including nutritional supplements or drugs) or other techniques. Such aids increase the potential for strength above normal capacity. Absolute strength is reached solely through training.
Linoleic Acid: An unsaturated fatty acid which brings oxygen to all cells, tissues and organs through the blood. It maintains the resilience and lubrication of all cells, and combines with protein and cholesterol to form living membranes which hold the body cells together. It also helps regulate the rate of blood coagulation, and breaks up cholesterol deposited on arterial wall. Linoleic acid cannot be synthesized in many species and therefore must be provided in the diet.
Linolenic Acid: An essential fatty acid found in vegetables, peanut oil, and other plants. A linolenic acid deficiency will result in hair loss, poor wound healing, and scaly dermatitis. Linolenic acid is used in the manufacture of paints, coatings, and vitamins. Linolenic acid is also used therapeutically as some vitamins.
Lipid: A number of body substances that are fat or fat-like.
Lipogenesis: The formation of fat.
Lipoprotein: Combination of a lipid and protein. Cholesterol is transported in the blood plasma by lipoproteins. See also high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein.
Longitudinal Study: A study which observes the same subjects over a period of time. See also cross-sectional study.
Lordosis: The forward curving of the spine at the neck (cervical spine) and lower back (lumbar spine). Often used to refer to an abnormally increased curvature of the lumbar spine.
Low Blood Sugar: Also known as hypoglycaemia, a low blood glucose level. See also hypoglycaemia.
Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL): A lipoprotein carrying a high level of cholesterol, moderate levels of protein and low levels of triglycerides. Associated with the building of other sclerotic deposits in the arteries. See also lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein.
Lower Abs: Slang for abdominal muscles below the navel. Conventional training wisdom holds that one can “isolate” the lower from the upper abs through leg raises or reverse crunches. In reality, when the abdominals contract, the contractile force is generated throughout the entire abdominal wall.
Lumbar: Pertaining to the lower back, defined by the five lumbar vertebrae, just above the sacrum.
Lymphatic system: Subsystem of the circulatory system, which protects the body against disease.
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Macrocycle: The largest periodization division, typically composed of two or more mesocycles.
Macronutrients: A category of nutrients: including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats: that are present in foods in large amounts.
Magnesium: A pivotal mineral important to protein synthesis, energy production, muscle contractions and a strong heart muscle. Essential for metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and vitamin C. Chronic muscle cramps is a typical sign of a shortage. RDA: 350 mg. (men), 300 mg. (women). Dietary sources: figs, lemons, grapefruit, yellow corn, almonds, nuts, seeds, dark green vegetables.
Maintenance Load: The intensity, duration and frequency of exercise required to maintain an individual’s present level of fitness.
Manganese: A key enzyme activator. Also vital to the formation of thyroid and reproductive hormones, normal skeletal development, muscle reflexes, and the proper digestion and utilization of food. No RDA. Dietary sources: whole grains, egg yolks, nuts, seeds and green vegetables.
Marfan syndrome: Genetic disorder of the connective tissue; symptoms include irregular and unsteady gait, tall lean body type with long extremities including fingers and toes, abnormal joint flexibility, flat feet, stooped shoulders, and dislocation of the optic lens. Complications include a weakened aorta, which may rupture if not treated.
Maria Thistle: The active compound in Maria Thistle is silymarin. It is known to be 1) a potent hepato-protector and antihepatotoxic agent (thereby restoring normal metabolic function to the liver), 2) promotes cellular regeneration via increased protein synthesis, 3) aids in protecting the kidneys, and 4) acts as a powerful antioxidant principally through its sparing effects on glutathione (which also probably accounts for its potency in improving liver function).
Max: Maximum effort for one repetition of a weight training exercise. Also expressed as one’s “1-RM” or “one rep max.” See also maximal oxygen uptake.
Maximal aerobic power: The most oxygen that can be taken up and used by the body during maximal work. Relates directly to the rate that the heart can supply the muscles with oxygenated blood.
Max V02 Uptake: The maximum usable portion of oxygen uptake. Referred to as aerobic capacity, maximal aerobic Power, maximal oxygen consumption, or VO2max and sometimes functional capacity.
Maximal Heart Rate: The highest heart rate of which an individual is capable. A broad rule of thumb for estimating maximal heart rate is 220 (beats per minute) minus the person’s age (in years). See also graded exercise test.
Maximum Minute Volume: The amount of air that a person can process during one minute of vigorous exercise.
Maximal Oxygen Uptake: The highest rate of oxygen consumption of which a person is capable. Usually expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute. Also called maximal aerobic power, maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen intake. See also VO2 max.
Maximal Tests: An exercise test to exhaustion or to levels of oxygen uptake or heart rate that cannot increase further with additional work loads. See also graded exercise test.
Maximum Life Span: The maximum life span is basically the record survival length for a species. For humans it is currently believed to be about 120. It has recently been proposed to be about 130 years.
Mechanical advantage: The ratio of the length of the moment arm through which a muscular force acts to the length of a moment arm through which a resistive force acts.
Mechanical energy: Capacity or ability to do mechanical work.
Medical clearance: Approval by a physician indicating that the client is fit for exercise.
Medical History: A list of a person’s previous illnesses, present conditions, symptoms, medications and health risk factors. Used to prescribe appropriate exercise programs. Persons whose responses indicate they may be in a high-risk category should be referred for medical evaluation before beginning an exercise program.
Medical Referral: Recommending that persons see a qualified medical professional to review their health status and determine whether medical treatment is needed or whether a particular course of exercise and/or diet change is safe.
Mean arterial pressure: The average blood pressure throughout the cardiac cycle (i.e., [(SBP − DBP) ÷ 3] + DBP).
Mesomorph: A person whose physique features powerful musculature.
Mesocycle: A division of a periodized program that lasts several weeks to a few months.
Met: A measure of energy output equal to the resting metabolic rate of a resting subject. Assumed to be equal to an oxygen uptake of 3.5 millilitres per kilogram of body weight per minute, or a caloric expenditure of 50 K-calories per square meter of body surface per hour. Hard exercise, for example, requires up to eight mets of energy expenditure, which equals eight times the resting energy requirement.
Metabolic set point: The base rate of metabolism that your body seeks to maintain; results in your basal metabolic rate.
Metabolic equivalent (MET): Resting oxygen uptake, generally estimated to be 3.5 ml 02/kg/min (1.2 kcal min for a 70-kg person).
Metabolic syndrome: Any combination of three or more of the following unhealthy conditions: abdominal obesity, high triglycerides, low hdls, hypertension, and high fasting glucose.
Metabolism: The total of all the chemical and physical processes by which the body builds and maintains itself (anabolism) and by which it breaks down its substances for the production of energy (catabolism).
Metabolite: Any substance which forms as a by-product of the catabolism, growth, or anabolism of living tissue.
Micro-cycle: A division of a periodized program that lasts from one to four weeks and can include daily and weekly training variations.
Midline: A longitudinal (imaginary) line that travels down the centre of the body.
Military Press: Pressing a barbell from upper chest upward in standing or sitting position.
Minerals: There are 96 times more minerals in the body than vitamins. As vitamins, they are necessary for life itself and combine with other basic components of food to form enzymes. Minerals are ingested through food and water. Many minerals are deficient in the diet because of mineral-poor agricultural soil, the result of intensive farming and long-term use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Minimum Daily Requirement (MDR): The minimum amounts of protein, vitamins and minerals considered necessary to maintain health. See also recommended daily allowance, optimal daily allowance.
Mitochondria: Specialized cellular organelles where the reactions of aerobic metabolism occur.
Mitral valve prolapse: Valvular heart disease characterized by the displacement of an abnormally thickened mitral valve leaflet into the left atrium during systole.
Mode: The specific type of exercise or activity that will be performed during an exercise session.
Mitochondria: The rod-shape organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells. They are the source of energy in the cell and are involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
Moment Arm: The perpendicular distance from the line of pull of a muscle to the axis of rotation.
Moment Of Force: Degree to which force tends to rotate an object about a specified fulcrum. It is defined quantitatively as the magnitude of a force times the length of its arm.
Monoplegia: Paralysis of one extremity only.
Monounsaturated Fat: Dietary fat whose molecules have one double bond open to receive more hydrogen. Found in many nuts, olive oil, and avocados. See also polyunsaturated fat, saturated fat, unsaturated fat.
Motivation: A psychological construct that influences behaviour, commitment, attitude, and the desire to exercise.
Motor Neuron: A nerve cell which conducts impulses from the central nervous system to a group of muscle fibres to produce movement.
Motor Unit: The basic unit of movement: a motor nerve fibre and all the muscle fibres it supplies. In the quadriceps muscle, one neuron can activate as many as 1,000 fibres. In the eye, where great precision is required, one nerve cell may control only 3 fibres.
Motor Unit Recruitment: One of the factors affecting strength. Refers to your ability to get maximum stimulation through the nervous system to trigger the maximum amount of contractile force through maximum motor unit recruitment. This can be built up over time through heavy resistance and explosive strength training.
Multi-joint exercise: An exercise that involves movement at two or more primary joints.
Multiple sclerosis: An immune-mediated (autoimmune) disorder that is characterized by inflammation and progressive degeneration of nervous tissue.
Muscle: Tissue consisting of fibres organized into bands or bundles that contract to perform bodily movement.
Muscle fibre: The structural unit of muscle. Also referred to as a muscle cell.
Muscular Endurance Training: A resistance training program designed to target the ability of a muscle or muscle group to contract repeatedly over an extended time period. Also called strength endurance training.
Muscle Fibre: Synonymous with muscle cell. See also fibre.
Muscle Fibre Arrangement: Long fibres are created for large movements and speed rather than strength. Short fibres are designed for strength with a lesser movement capability. Knowledge of fibre arrangement can help you train muscle groups in a scientific manner.
Muscle Group: Specific muscles that act together at the same joint to produce a movement.
Muscle Pull (strain): Major or minor damage to muscles from excessive stretching or use. The key to avoiding muscle pulls is proper conditioning and strict adherence to a thorough program of warm-up and cool-down.
Muscle Spasm: Sudden, involuntary contraction of muscle or muscle group.
Muscle Spindle: The “computer” of muscle tissue, a modified fibre which responds reflexively to mental impulses and muscle movement such as stretching. Measures and delivers the quantity of muscle force needed to perform a given action. Rapid stretching of the muscle, for example, results in messages being sent to the nervous system to contract the muscle, thereby limiting the stretch. See also Golgi tendon organ, proprioceptor.
Muscle Substitution: The employment of a different muscle or muscle group to replace a muscle that can no longer be used.
Muscular System: System consisting of large skeletal muscles that allow us to move, cardiac muscle in the heart, and smooth muscle of the internal organs.
Muscle Tone: The degree of tension and vigour in a gross muscle. Muscle tone is increased through weight training, which results in a greater number of muscles fibre “firing” while at rest.
Musculoskeletal System: Body system that consists of the bones, joints, connective tissue, and muscles.
Musculotendinous: Of, relating to, or affecting muscular and tendinous tissue.
Myocardial Infarction: A common form of heart attack, in which the blockage of a coronary artery causes the death of a part of the heart muscle. See also infarction.
Myocarditis: Inflammation of the heart muscle.
Myofibril: The functional units within muscle fibres that cause contractions. The more you have, the greater your strength. Myofibrillarization: increasing myofibrils: is achieved with the use of heavy weight training.
Myofilaments: The elements of a muscle cell which comprise myofibrils that actually shorten (thereby providing contractile force) by sliding across one another via action of “cross bridges.” They are comprised of the proteins; actin, and myosin.
Myoglobin: An iron-containing protein responsible for oxygen transport and storage in muscle tissue, like haemoglobin in blood.
Myotatic (stretch) reflex: An activation of previously stretched extrafusal muscle fibres that occurs in response to their being stretched.
Myoneural Junction: The connection of a neuron to a muscle fibre.
Myosin: The most abundant protein (68%) in muscle fibre. It is the main constituent of the thick contractile filaments which overlap with the thin actin filaments in the biochemical sequence that produces contractions.
Myositis: Inflammation of a skeletal muscle.
Myositis Ossificans: The deposit of bony materials in the muscle. Bruises from contact sports may result in this condition. Severe bruises should be iced, and evaluated by a physician.
Myplate: A visual depiction that displays the USDA’s recommended types and amounts of food to eat daily.
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Nautilus: Variable resistance-type exercise machine which attempts to match the amount of resistance with the user’s force output. Arthur Jones, developer of Nautilus equipment in the 1970s is considered one of the true pioneers of fitness technology.
Near-infrared interactance (NIR)—A body composition test that measures changes in the absorption of light at various anatomical sites; sometimes referred to as near-infrared reactance.
Negative Reps: An eccentric contraction. One or two partners assist in lifting a weight up to 20: 40% heavier than an individual could normally lift. Once hoisted to the extended position, the weight is slowly lowered without help. This type of exercise is extremely damaging to connective tissue, and (according to the “cataclysmic” theory of overtraining) is the elemental factor in overtraining and cumulative microtrauma.
Negligence—The failure to conform one’s conduct to a generally accepted standard or the failure to act as a reasonably prudent person would act under the circumstances.
Nerve Impulse: A brief reversal of the membrane potential that sweeps along the membrane of a neuron.
Nervous system: System comprised of brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. Regulates other systems.
Neutral grip—A grip in which the palm faces in and the knuckles point out to the side, as in a handshake.
Neutralizer: When a muscle contracts to counteract an undesirable action of another muscle.
Neuromuscular Re-education (NMR): Therapy involving deep Rolfing massage and neurological stimulation to eliminate painful strength- and movement-limiting adhesions and scar tissue in muscles caused by trauma. Developed by Drs. Gary Glum and Joseph Horrigan, Los Angeles chiropractors specializing in soft-tissue injuries in sports.
Neurotransmitter: A biochemical that spans the gaps between nerve cells, transmitting an electrical impulse.
Nicotine: An alkaloid found in the tobacco plant. Nicotine first stimulates the central nervous system, then depresses it. It is absorbed easily through the mucous membranes and the skin, and is highly toxic; symptoms include nausea, vomiting, twitching, and convulsions. Nicotine is used as an agricultural insecticide.
Nitrogen Balance: An estimate of the difference between nitrogen intake and output in the body to measure protein sufficiency. Derived by subtracting amount of urea nitrogen in a urine sample from an individual’s total protein intake. If urea value is larger than protein intake, the nitrogen balance is negative, indicating that not enough protein was eaten to meet the body’s nutritional needs. In this situation, muscle protein is sacrificed to provide additional protein to fund metabolic processes. Prolonged negative balance results in muscle wasting. Positive nitrogen balance is achieved by ingesting complete protein to meet the body’s metabolic needs. Non-resistance Training: Training without weights in which you pit muscle strength against body weight to develop general and aerobic fitness. Includes mild running, calisthenics, jumping, skipping, swimming, and bicycling.
Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid (NDGA): The primary active constituent of the chaparral bush, which grows in southwestern USA (to over 1000 years old!). It is widely known in the scientific community as a powerful antioxidant, and has the official designation as a “lipoxygenase inhibitor.” Both research and folklore classify NDGA as effective in 1) cellular respiration, 2) analgesic activity, 3) anti-inflammatory activity, and 4) vaso-depressant activity. These functions make NDGA a potent anti-ageing substance.
Normotensive—Having normal blood pressure.
Norm-referenced standard—A method to compare data that involves comparing the performance of a client against the performance of others in the same category (e.g., percentile scores).
Nutraceutical: Actually, nothing more than a cross between the two words, “nutritional” and “pharmaceutical,” a nutraceutical is any nutritional supplement designed for any specific clinical purpose(s). Thus, engineered foods such as Ensure, Enfamil, Nutriment, Met-Rx, and IGF-33 are regarded as nutraceuticals. Due to FDA and FTC regulations, clinical or medical claims cannot be made for them. Thus, all are functionally (legally) on the market as foods for general consumption (or “health foods”) to be used as “supplements” to nutrition (diet). Medical doctors frequently utilize these and other nutritional supplements in myriad clinical settings. See also supplements, nutrition.
Nutrients: Food and its specific elements and compounds that can be used by the body to build and maintain itself and to produce energy. Conventionally, this word refers to the macronutrients (water, protein, fats, carbohydrates) and the micronutrients (vitamins, minerals and trace elements) that are essential for energy and growth. On a legal (FDA) level, it specifically excludes substances for which claims are made (legitimately or illegitimately) for amelioration, cure or prevention of any disease entity or other clinical functions beyond growth and energy.
Nutrition: The programmatic use of nutrients.
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Obesity: Excessive accumulation of body fat.
Obliques: Short for external and/or internal obliques, the muscles to either side of abdominals that rotate and flex the trunk.
Octacosanol: The active, energy-boosting component of wheat germ oil which is known to improve endurance, reaction time, and muscle glycogen storage. Taken as a supplement.
Olympic Lifts: The two weightlifting movements used in Olympic competitions: the snatch, and the clean and jerk. The military press was eliminated as a contested lift after the 1972 Olympics. See also weightlifting.
Olympic Set: High-quality, precision-made set of weights used for competition. The bar is approximately 7’ long. All moving parts have either brass bushings or bearings. Plates are machined for accurate weight.
One Repetition Maximum, 1 RM: The maximum resistance with which a person can execute one repetition of an exercise movement. See also repetition.
Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA): The point at which blood lactate concentrations reach 4 mmol/L during exercise of increasing intensity.
Optimal Daily Allowances (ODA): Applied to active people such as athletes and fitness enthusiasts whose nutritional requirement are beyond those of the normal (sedentary) people upon whom the FDA’s old RDA scale was devises.
Open grip: See false grip.
Open kinetic chain: A movement during which the most distal body part is free to move; often occurs with lower (or upper) body movements with the feet (or hands) off the floor and typically involves pushing or pulling against a machine.
Origin: The attachment of a muscle to the less moveable or proximal (closer to the centre of the body) structure.
Ornithine: Produced in the urea cycle by splitting off the urea from arginine and is itself converted into citrulline. On decomposition it gives rise to putrescine. It has been demonstrated to be of value as a growth hormone stimulator when administered intravenously; there is no solid evidence that it stimulates growth hormone to a significant degree (enough to stimulate muscle growth) when taken orally.
Ornithine Alpha ketoglutarate (OKG): Clinically shown to: (1.) Decrease muscle protein catabolism (2.) Improve nitrogen retention in muscle tissue (3.) Augment muscle tissue polyamine (PA) response (4.) Mediate an insulin increase (5.) Improve both protein synthesis and wound healing in muscles (6.) Promote anabolic (muscle building) processes. It is successfully used in treating burn patients as well as traumatized, surgical and malnourished individuals.
Osmolarity: The concentration of a solution participating in osmosis (e.g., a sugar-water solution of high osmolarity is concentrated enough to draw water through the membranes of the digestive tract to dilute the sugar.) See also hypertonic, hypotonic.
Osmosis: The movement of fluid through a membrane, tending to equalize the concentrations of the solutions on both sides. See also osmolarity.
Ossification: The formation of bone. The turning of cartilage into bone (as in the joints). See also myositis ossificans, osteoarthritis.
Osteoporosis: A disorder characterized by the demineralization of bone tissue that results in a decreased bone mineral density.
Osteoarthritis: A noninflammatory joint disease of older persons. The cartilage in the joint wears down, and there is bone growth at the edges of the joints. Results in pain and stiffness, especially after prolonged exercise. See also arthritis.
Outcome goal: A goal that is gauged by social comparison (e.g., the desire to beat an opponent).
Overhand grip: A grip in which the hand grasps the bar with the palm down and the knuckles up.
Overload: Subjecting a part of the body to efforts greater than it is accustomed to, in order to elicit a training response. Increases may be in intensity or duration.
Overload Principle: Applying a greater load than normal to a muscle to increase its capability.
Overreaching: Short-term exercise training, without sufficient recuperation, that exceeds an individual’s capacity.
Overstriding: A walking or running gait in which the foot hits too far in front of the body’s centre of gravity, causing a braking effect.
Overtraining: A condition in which a client trains too much or rests too little, or both, resulting in diminished exercise capacity, injury, or illness.
Overtraining: Excessive training, principally of the eccentric contraction phase of lifting weights or running. Can cause injuries, loss of body weight, insomnia, depression, chronic muscle soreness and retard workout recovery.
Overuse: Excessive repeated exertion or shock which results in injuries such as stress fractures of bones or inflammation of muscles and tendons.
Overuse Syndrome: Injury resulting from overtraining.
Oxidation: The chemical act of combining with oxygen or of removing hydrogen.
Oxygen debt: See excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).
Oxygen deficit: The difference between the amount of oxygen required for exercise and the amount of oxygen actually consumed during exercise.
Oxidative Pathway: Oxygen combines with lactic acid resynthesizing glycogen to produce energy aerobically.
Oxidative System: The group of chemical reactions used to produce ATP via aerobic means with a variety of energy sources.
Oxidative Sports: Sports such as long distance running or cycling wherein oxygen must be present to allow movement to continue (see ATP/CP Sports and Glycolytic Sports).
Oxygen (O2): The essential element in the respiration process to sustain life. The colourless, odourless gas makes up about 20 percent of the air, by weight at sea level.
Oxygen Consumption: See oxygen uptake.
Oxygen Debt: The oxygen consumed in recovery from exercise above the amount that would normally be consumed at rest. In intense endurance activities, oxygen debt refers to the amount of oxygen that is “owed” to the system to oxidize lactic acid build-up. One’s tolerance for an accumulated debt is generally proportional to the level of fitness.
Oxygen Deficit: The energy supplied anaerobically while oxygen uptake has not yet reached the steady state which matches energy output. Becomes oxygen debt at end of exercise.
Oxygen Uptake: The amount of oxygen intake used up at the cellular level during exercise. Can be measured by determining the amount of oxygen exhaled as compared to the amount inhaled, or estimated by indirect means.
Nutrition: The programmatic use of nutrients.
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Pace/tempo training: A type of training program that involves an exercise intensity at the lactate threshold.
Paralysis: Lack of innervation to muscle, resulting in loss of voluntary motion.
PAR-Q (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire): An assessment tool to initially screen apparently healthy clients who want to engage in low-intensity exercise and identify clients who require additional medical screening.
Paraplegia: Injury to thoracic segments T-2 to T-12 causing impairment in the trunk, legs, pelvic organs, or a combination of these.
Paresis: Muscular weakness.
Parcourse Training: A concept borrowed from outdoor parks and applied to the gym during sports-specific phase of foundation training for aerobic athletes. Involves the performance of aerobic activities: jogging, skipping rope, straddle jumping, bicycle ergometer: between exercises of a weight training routine.
Partial Reps: Performing an exercise without going through a complete range of motion. Exercise mythology has it that one must exercise a muscle through a full range of motion of the joint upon which the muscle acts in order not to become “muscle bound” and to derive maximum strength and growth. In reality, partial movements often provide better overload because more weight can be moved.
Passive warm-up: A type of warm-up that involves receiving external warmth or tissue manipulation (e.g., hot shower, heating pad, or massage).
Peak Contraction: Exercising a muscle until it cramps by using shortened movements.
Peak Heart Rate: The highest heart rate reached during a work session.
Pecs: Slang for pectoral muscles of the chest.
Pennation angle: The angle between the direction of the muscle fibres and an imaginary line between the muscle’s origin and its insertion.
Peptide: Any member of a class of compounds of low molecular weight which yield two or more amino acids on hydrolysis. Formed by loss of water from the NH2 and COOH groups of adjacent amino acids, they are known as di-, tri-, tetra- (etc.) Peptides, depending on the number of amino acids in the molecule. Peptides (“polypeptides”) form the constituent parts of proteins.
Percent of APMHR method: A method to deter- mine exercise heart rate that takes into consideration a client’s age.
Percentile: Percentage of scorers at or below the client’s score.
Perimysium: The connective tissue encasing groups of muscle fibres (fascicles).
Periodization: The systematic process of planned variations in a resistance training program over a training cycle.
Performance goal: A goal that is gauged by a self- referenced personal performance standard (e.g., client’s desire to beat his own record).
Phosphagen system: The simplest set of chemical reactions needed to produce ATP.
Periodization: “Periodized training” is a phrase which refers to how one’s training is broken down into discreet time periods called “macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles.”
Peripheral Heart Action (PHA): Developed in the early 60s by Chuck Coker (inventor of the “Universal” multi-station exercise machines), PHA training is an excellent all-around system of weight training whereby muscles are exercised in an alternating sequence of upper and lower body. This method keeps blood circulating constantly throughout the body, prevents undue fatigue in any given muscle, facilitates recovery and provides a holistic muscular development. It is mildly cardiovascular.
Peripheral Nervous System: Relays messages from the CNS to the body (the efferent system), and relays messages to the CNS (the afferent system) from the body.
Perseveration: Inability to stop responding to a stimulus of a device.
Ph: A measure of acidity, relating to the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. A ph of 7.0 is neutral; acidity increases with lower numbers, and alkalinity increases with higher numbers. Body fluids have a ph of about 7.3.
Phosphorus: Works with calcium to build up bones and teeth. Provides a key element in the production of ATP. RDA: 800 mg. Dietary sources: animal protein, whole grains.
Physical Conditioning: A program of regular, sustained exercise to increase or maintain levels of strength, flexibility, aerobic capacity, and body composition consistent with health, fitness or (especially) athletic objectives.
Physical Fitness: The physiological contribution to wellness through exercise and nutrition behaviours that maintain high aerobic capacity, balanced body composition, and adequate strength and flexibility to minimize risk of chronic health problems and to enhance the enjoyment of life.
Physical Work Capacity (PWC): An exercise test that measures the amount of work done at a given, submaximal heart rate. The work is measured in oxygen uptake, kilopond meters per minute, or other units, and can be used to estimate maximal heart rate and oxygen uptake. Less accurate, but safer and less expensive than the graded exercise test.
Physiology: The science concerned with the normal vital processes of animal and vegetable organisms.
Pivot: See fulcrum.
Plantarflexion: Extension of the ankle, pointing of the foot and toes.
Plasma: The fluid portion of blood.
Plasticity: The tendency of a muscle to assume a new and greater length after a passive stretch even after the load is removed.
Platelet: Cytoplasmic body found in the blood plasma that functions to promote blood clotting.
Plyometric: A type of exercise that suddenly preloads and forces the stretching of a muscle an instant prior to its concentric action. An example is jumping down from a bench and immediately springing back up.
Polyunsaturated Fat: Dietary fat whose molecules have more than one double bond open to receive more hydrogen. Found in safflower oil, corn oil, soybeans, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds. See also monounsaturated fat, saturated fat, unsaturated fat.
Post-Exercise Muscle Soreness: Microtrauma to connective tissue releases an amino acid called hydroxyproline which, within 48 hours, causes irritation to local nerve endings, triggering pain. Typically occurs from exertion or concentrated movement after a long period of disuse but even affects the most physically fit athletes after excessively stressful exercise.
Postictal state: The period immediately following a seizure.
Potassium: Teams with sodium to regulate body’s water balance and heart rhythms. Nerve and muscle function are disturbed when the two minerals are not balanced. Insufficient potassium can lead to fatigue, cramping and muscle damage. Physical and mental stress, excessive sweating, alcohol, coffee, and a high intake of salt (sodium) and sugar deplete potassium. No RDA. Dietary sources: citrus, cantaloupe, green leafy vegetables, bananas.
Potentiation: The increase in activity of the agonist muscle caused by the reflexive response of the muscle spindles and the release of stored elastic energy.
Power: Work performed per unit of time. Measured by the formula: work equals force times distance divided by time. A combination of strength and speed. See also strength.
Power (or explosive) exercise: A structural core exercise that is purposely performed very quickly.
Power Training: System of weight training using low repetitions and explosive movements with heavy weights.
Powerlifts: Three lifts contested in the sport of powerlifting: the squat, bench press and deadlift. Powerlifting was first organized in the USA in the early 60s from the “odd lifts” competitions which used to be part of almost all bodybuilding and weightlifting competitions. Of the over 40 odd lifts contested, these three lifts were chosen as being the most representative test of total body limit strength.
Preadolescence: Period of time before the development of secondary sex characteristics, corresponding roughly to the ages 6 to 11 years in girls and 6 to 13 years in boys.
Preeclampsia: Hypertension that is induced by pregnancy.
Precaution: An activity that an injured client can perform under the supervision of a qualified personal trainer and according to client limitations and symptom reproduction
Preload: The stretching of a muscle prior to contracting it, thereby providing both a “stretch reflex” and a viscoelastic component, adding to the total force output.
Primary Risk Factor: A risk factor that is strong enough to operate independently, without the presence of other risk factors. See also risk factor, secondary risk factor.
Prime Mover: The muscle or muscle group that is involved in a concentric contraction. See also agonist.
Process goal: A goal that is gauged by the amount or quality of effort during an activity (e.g., the desire to demonstrate perfect exercise technique).
Program design variable: An aspect of an exercise program that, when manipulated properly, leads to a safe, effective, and goal-specific outcome.
Progression: The gradual and consistent increase in the intensity of an exercise program.
Progressive overload: A process by which training stress is altered as a client becomes better trained, allowing her to continue advancing toward a specific training goal.
Progressive Resistance Exercise: Exercise in which the amount of resistance is increased to further stress the muscle after it has become accustomed to handling a lesser resistance.
Pronation: Assuming a facedown position. Of the hand, turning the palm backward or downward. Of the foot, lowering the inner (medial) side of the foot so as to flatten the arch. The opposite of supination.
Prone: Lying in a face-down position.
Pronated grip: See overhand grip.
Proprioception: Sensory feedback concerning movement and position of the body, occurring chiefly in the muscles (spindles), tendons (Golgi tendon organs), and joint receptors.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretch: Muscle stretches that use the proprioceptors (muscle spindles) to send inhibiting (relaxing) messages to the muscle that is to be stretched. Example: The contraction of an agonist muscle sends inhibiting signals that relax the antagonist muscle so that it is easier to stretch. (Term was once applied to a very specific therapeutic technique, but now is being widely applied to stretch techniques such as slow-reversal-hold, contract-relax, and hold-relax.)
Proprioceptor: Self-sensors (nerve terminals) that give messages to the nervous system about movements and position of the body. Proprioceptors include muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs.
Protease: A category of enzymes which attack specific bonds between amino acids and proteins. The proteases break amino acid bonds to split up the protein molecule into smaller pieces of lined amino acids. Examples of proteases are renin and pepsin; these enzymes can be found in animals. Rennin is used in the thickening of milk and is isolated from the stomach of the calf; pepsin is found in the gastric juices of humans and other animals where it breaks down proteins at specific places.
Protein: One of the three basic foodstuffs: along with carbohydrates and fat. Proteins are complex substances present in all living organisms. It comprises 90 percent of the dry weight of blood, 80 percent of muscles, and 70 percent of the skin. Protein provides the connective and structural building blocks of tissue and primary constituents of enzymes, hormones and antibodies. The components of protein are amino acids. Dietary protein is derived from both animal and plant foods. Protein is essential for growth, the building of new tissue, and the repair of injured or broken-down tissue. They serve as enzymes, structural elements, hormones, immunoglobulins, etc. And are involved in oxygen transport and other activities throughout the body, and in photosynthesis. Protein can be oxidized in the body, liberating heat and energy at the rate of four calories per gram. See also amino acids, essential amino acids.
Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): A system of rating the quality of dietary protein by the number and proportions of the essential amino acids contained in it. Eggs rank highest. They contain all eight essential amino acids in a proportion regarded as the most readily assimilable and usable combination of naturally-occurring amino acids. Eggs are the standard by which all other protein sources are rated for assimilability.
Proximate cause: A cause that immediately precedes and produces an effect.
Psychomotor: Pertaining to movement (both fine and gross)
Pulmonary: Pertaining to the lungs.
Pulmonary (ventilatory) Capacity: The efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs.
Pumped: Slang term to describe the tightness in a muscle made large through exercise. The pumped sensation results from blood engorgement and lactic acid accumulation in the exercised muscle.
Pumping Iron: Slang for lifting weights, a phrase used since the 1950s.
Punishment: Any act, object, or event that decreases the likelihood of future target behaviour (when the punishment follows that behaviour).
Pyridoxine Alpha ketoglutarate (PAK): Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is ionically combined with the complexing agent, alpha ketoglutarate to form a high energy compound. It is widely used as a nutritional supplement by athletes wishing to improve energy output.
Pyramid Training: A training protocol incorporating an upward- then-downward progression in weight, rep-per-rep or set-per-set.
Pyruvate: A by-product of glycolysis. See also Pyruvic Acid, precursor of lactate during the final steps of glycolysis.
Pyruvic Acid: The end product of the glycolytic pathway. This three-carbon metabolite is an important junction point for two reasons: it is the gateway to the final common energy-producing pathway, the Krebs cycle; and it provides acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl coa), through which fatty acids, and in turn fat, are produced from glucose. Pyruvic acid converts to lactic acid as needed. Pyruvic acid increases in quantity in the blood and tissues in thiamine (vitamin B-1) deficiency. Thiamine is essential for its oxidation.
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Quadriceps: A muscle group at the front of the thigh connected to a common tendon that surrounds the knee cap and attaches to the tibia (lower leg bone). The individual muscles are the rectus femoris, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis. Acts to extend the lower leg.
Quadriplegia: Paralysis affecting all four limbs.
Quads: Slang for quadriceps.
Quality Training: Training prior to bodybuilding competition where intervals between sets are reduced to enhance muscle mass and density, and low-calorie diet is followed to reduce bodyfat.
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Radial Pulse: The pulse at the wrist.
Rate coding: The control of the motor unit firing rate (i.e., the number of action potentials per unit of time).
Rate-limiting step: The slowest reaction in a series of reactions.
Rate–pressure product: An estimation of the work of the heart (i.e., double product; HR SBP).
Rating of perceived exertion (RPE): A self-rating system that accounts for all of the body’s responses to a particular exercise intensity.
Rating of Perceived Exertion: A means to quantify the subjective feeling of the intensity of an exercise. Borg scales, charts which describe a range of intensity from resting to maximal energy outputs, are used as a visual aid to exercisers in keeping their efforts in the effective training zone.
RDA (Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances): Estimates established by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences for nutritional needs necessary for prevention of nutrient depletion in healthy people. Does not take into account altered requirements due to sickness, injury, physical or mental stress, use of medications or drugs, nor compensate for the nutrient losses that occur during processing and preparation of food. RDA standards do not apply to athletes, who have extraordinary nutrient needs. While they were designed to meet the needs of a majority of people, rdas are nonetheless far too low for serious athletes and even for fitness enthusiasts who exercise regularly. (See ODA: Optimal Daily Allowances)
Reciprocal Innervation: A phenomenon in which the opposing muscle group is stimulated to relax while the prime mover muscle(s) is simultaneously stimulated to contract, thereby allowing movement to occur.
Recruitment: Activation of motor units; the greater the resistance encountered; the greater will be the Rectus recruitment necessary to overcome its inertia.
Rectilinear motion: Motion along a straight line.
Rectus Femoris: The long, straight muscle in the front of the thigh which attaches to the knee cap. Part of the quadriceps muscle group.
Recuperation: A physiological process involving full body and muscle recovery and subsequent muscle growth during a rest period between training sessions.
Rehabilitation: A program to restore physical and psychological independence to persons disabled by illness or injury in the shortest period of time.
Reinforcement: Any act, object, or event that increases the likelihood of future target behaviour (when the reinforcement follows the target behaviour).
Reliability: An expression of the repeatability of a test or the consistency of repeated tests.
Renal: Pertaining to the kidney.
Rep Out: Repeat the same exercise movement until you are unable to continue.
Repetition: An individual completed exercise movement. Repetitions are usually done in multiples. See also one repetition maximum, set.
Repetition maximum (RM): The greatest amount of weight that can be lifted with proper technique for a specific number of repetitions.
Repetition maximum zone (RM target zone): A range of repetitions that the client attempts to per- form using the heaviest weight he can.
Reproductive System: System consisting of gonads, associated ducts, and external genitals concerned with sexual reproduction.
Residual Volume: The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration. Must be calculated in the formula for determining body composition through underwater weighing.
Resistance: The amount of weight used in each set of an exercise, or the force which a muscle is required to work against.
Resisted sprinting: A method to increase stride length and speed-strength by increasing the client’s ground force production during the support phase.
Respiratory exchange ratio (RER): The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide expired to the volume of oxygen consumed as measured at the mouth.
Resting heart rate (RHR):
Respiration: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the cells of the body. Includes ventilation (breathing), exchange of gasses to and from the blood in the lungs, transportation of the gasses in the blood, the taking in and utilizing of oxygen, and the elimination of waste products by the cells. See also expiration, inspiration, ventilation.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ): A method of determining the “fuel mix” being used giving us a way to measure the relative amounts of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins being burned for energy.
Respiratory System: System consisting of the lungs and air passageways, which supplies oxygen to the body and removes carbon dioxide.
Response: An immediate, short-term change in physiological functions (such as heart-rate or respiration) brought on by exercise. See also adaptation.
Resting Heart Rate: The number of times the heart beats in one minute: 72 beats per minute for the average adult. The heart rate associated with the client’s resting metabolic rate. See also resting metabolic rate.
Resting metabolic rate (RMR): A measure of the calories required for maintaining normal metabolism.
Rest Interval: Pause between sets of an exercise which allows muscles to recover partially before beginning next set.
Rest Pause Training: Training method where you press out one difficult repetition, replace bar in stand, then perform another rep after a 10-20 second rest, etc.
Retest: A repetition of a given test after passage of time, usually to assess the progress made in an exercise program.
Ripped: Slang meaning extremely visible muscularity resulting from both hypertrophy and subcutaneous fat removal.
Risk Factor: A behaviour, characteristic, symptom, or sign that is associated with an increased risk of developing a health problem. Example: Smoking is a risk factor for lung cancer and coronary heart disease. See also primary risk factor, secondary risk factor.
Risk Management: A facet of the emergency plan designed to decrease and control the risk of injury from client participation and, therefore, the risk of liability exposure. Risk management may involve internal or external audits to identify potential problems, as well as actions taken to improve the safe delivery of services and reduce the chances of untoward events and potential lawsuits.
Risk Stratification: A method to initially classify clients as being at low, moderate, or high risk for coronary, peripheral vascular, or metabolic disease.
Rotational motion: The product of the force exerted on an object and the distance the object rotates.
RM: Acronym for “repetitions maximum.” Thus, for example, 5RM stands for the maximum amount of weight you can perform for five repetitions.
Roids: Slang for anabolic steroid.
Rotation: Turning or movement of a body round its axis.
Rotator Cuff: A band of 4 muscles that hold the arm in the shoulder joint.
Retraction: Backward movement of a part.
Rotation: Movement of a bone around its long (longitudinal) axis.
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Safety space cushion: The recommended area between each piece of equipment to enhances traffic flow in, out of, and around the exercise facility.
Sagittal (Anteroposterior) Plane: Separates the body into right and left sections.
Sagittal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body or organs into left and right portions.
Sarcomere: The segment of a myofibril between two adjacent Z-lines (bands), representing the functional unit of skeletal muscle.
Sarcopenia: Muscle loss due to aging.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Highly specialized net- work system in a muscle fibre that stores calcium ions.
Sarcoplasm: Jelly-like intracellular fluid found in the muscle fibre.
Sartorius: The longest muscle in the body, involved in the movement of the thigh at the hip joint.
Saturated Fat: Dietary fat from primarily animal sources. Excessive consumption is the major dietary contributor to total blood cholesterol levels and is linked to increased risk for coronary heart disease.
Saturated Fatty Acid: An acid which, by definition, has no available bonds in its hydrocarbon chain; all bonds are filled or saturated with hydrogen atoms. Thus, the chain of a saturated fatty acid contains no double bond. The saturated fatty acids are more slowly metabolized by the body than are the unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids include acetic acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, and steric acid. These acids come primarily from animal sources, with the exception of coconut oil, and are usually solid at room temperature. In the case of vegetable shortening and margarine, oil products have undergone a process called “hydrogenation,” in which the unsaturated oils are converted to a more solid form. Other principal sources of saturated fats are milk products and eggs.
Screening: Comparing individuals to set criteria for inclusion in a fitness program, or for referral to medical evaluation.
Scope of practice: Legal boundaries that determine the extent of a personal trainer’s professional duties.
Second-class lever: A lever in which the applied and resistive forces act on the same side of the fulcrum, but with the applied force acting through a moment arm that is longer than that of the resistive force.
Secondary Risk Factor: A risk factor that acts when certain other risk factors are present. See also primary risk factor, risk factor.
Sedentary: Sitting a lot; not involved in any physical activity that might produce significant fitness benefits.
Seizure: An uncontrolled electrical discharge within any part of the brain, causing physical or mental symptoms that may or may not be associated with convulsions.
Self-determination: A desire to participate in an activity for self-fulfilment as opposed to a desire to meet the expectations of others.
Self-efficacy: A perceived self-confidence in one’s own ability to perform specific actions (e.g., reach a short-term goal) that lead to a successful outcome.
Self-talk: A client’s “internal voice.”
Selenium: A major nutrient antioxidant along with vitamins A, C and E. No RDA. Dietary sources: wheat germ, bran, tuna.
Sensory Integration: Neurological process of organizing information from one or more sensory channel.
Series elastic component (SEC): The structures that, when stretched, have the ability to store energy that may be released upon an immediate concentric muscle action.
Set: A group of repetitions of an exercise movement done consecutively, without rest, until a given number, or momentary exhaustion, is reached. See also repetition.
Shin Splints: Pain in the front of the lower leg from inflammation of muscle and tendon tissue caused by overuse. See also overuse.
Short-term goal: An attainable step that brings the client closer to reaching a long-term goal.
Siberian Ginseng (eleuthero coccus senticosus): A cousin of traditional Oriental ginsengs widely used among Russian athletes for boosting stamina and endurance, speeding workout recovery, and as a health tonic to normalize systemic functions and counter stress. An adapto-genic substance that enables athletes over time to adapt to increased training intensity.
Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and disaccharides occurring naturally in fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. Some examples of simple carbohydrates are glucose, galactose, and fructose, all of which are monosaccharides, and sucrose, lactose, and maltose, all of which are disaccharides. Most simple carbohydrates elevate blood sugar levels rapidly, providing “instant energy” which is quickly utilized and dissipated. Fructose is an exception. Additionally, refined sources of simple carbohydrates, such as candy, contribute only calories to the diet. These “empty calories” are often consumed in place of foods which would provide important nutrients in addition to the energy.
Single-joint exercise: An exercise that involves movement at only one primary joint.
Size Principle of Fibre Recruitment: Principle stating that fibres with a high level of reliability get recruited first; those with lower levels of reliability are recruited last.
Skeletal Muscle: Muscle that attaches to the skeletal system and causes body movement by a shortening or pulling action against its bony attachment.
Skeletal System: System consisting of bone and cartilage that supports and protects the body.
Sliding Filament Theory: Theory stating that a myofibril contracts by the actin and myosin filaments sliding over each other.
Slow-Twitch Fibres: Muscle fibre type that contracts slowly and is used most in moderate-intensity, endurance exercises, such as distance running. A muscle fibre characterized by its slow speed of contraction and a high capacity for aerobic glycolysis.
Somatic System: System responsible for voluntary action.
Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle tissue found in the walls of almost every organ of the body.
Snatch: Olympic lift where weight is lifted from floor to overhead (with arms extended) in one movement.
Sodium: An essential mineral for proper growth, and nerve and muscle tissue function. A diet high in salt (40% of salt is sodium) causes a potassium imbalance and is associated with high blood pressure. No RDA. Dietary sources: salt, shellfish, celery, beets, artichokes.
Somatotype: A classification of body types. See also endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph.
Spasticity: A neurological disorder of the upper motoneuron, resulting in abnormally active stretch reflexes. Muscle appears hypertonic and demonstrates exaggerated reflexes or clonus when perturbed (i.e., stretched).
Specificity: A strategy to train a client in a certain way to produce a particular change or result.
Specific warm-up: A type of warm-up in which movements are performed that mimic the sport or activity (e.g., slow jogging before running or lifting light loads on the bench press before lifting training loads).
Speed-endurance: The ability to maintain running speed over an extended duration (typically longer than 6 seconds).
Speed-strength: The application or development of maximum force at high velocities. A type of strength typically referred to as power. Power, however, is an inadequate term as it does not differentiate between the two important types of speed-strength.
Spasm: The involuntary contraction of a muscle or muscle group in a sudden, violent manner.
Spatial Awareness/Orientation: The awareness of one’s position in space and the location of objects in relation to self and other objects. Includes judgements of distance, depth and directionality.
Specificity: The principle that the body adapts very specifically to the training stimuli it is required to deal with. The body will perform best at the specific speed, type of contraction, muscle-group usage, and energy-source usage it has become accustomed to in training.
(1.) Starting strength involves turning on a maximum number of muscles fibres instantly in any given movement. Ballistic athletes, such as sprinters, need this strength the most to make their muscles fire simultaneously with each stride. A boxer does the same with each punch, a baseball pitcher each time he hurls.
(2.) Explosive strength describes the firing of muscles fibres over a longer period after initial activation, for the purpose of pushing, pulling, or moving a weighted object. Examples: weightlifting, shot-putting and football.
Spinal Nerves: The 31 pairs of nerves radiating outward from the spinal cord which relay impulses to and from the skeletal muscles.
Sphygmomanometry: Measurement of blood pressure using an inflatable air bladder–containing cuff and a stethoscope to auscultate the Korotkoff sounds.
Split routine: An exercise routine in which different muscle groups are trained on different days or training sessions.
Spot Reducing: An effort to reduce fat at one location on the body by concentrating exercise, manipulation, wraps, etc. On that location. Though there are some minor exceptions, research indicates that any fat loss is mostly generalized over the body, however.
Sprain: A stretching or tearing of ligaments. Severity ratings of sprains are first-degree, partial tearing; third-degree, complete tearing. See also strains.
Sprint-assisted training: A method to increase stride frequency by having the client run at speeds greater than he is able to independently achieve.
Squamous Epithelium: Epithelium consisting of one or more cell layers, the most superficial of which is composed of flat, scalelike or platelike cells.
Squats: An upper leg and hip exercise usually performed with a barbell resting on the shoulders. A deep knee bend is performed; the squatter then returns to an erect standing position. There are several methods of squatting, each having its own unique advantages and disadvantages. The squat is also one of the three lifts contested in the sport of powerlifting.
Stabilization: The act of being stable or balanced.
Stabilizer: A muscle that stabilizes (or fixes) a bone so that movement can occur efficiently at another bone articulating with the stabilized bone.
Stage of readiness: The degree or extent to which a client is ready to begin an exercise program.
Standard error of measurement: The difference between a person’s observed score: what the result was: and that person’s true score, a theoretically errorless score.
Standard of care: A set of criteria for the appropriate duties of a personal trainer. See also scope of practice.
Starch: Starch is a polysaccharide made of glucose linked together. The body must convert starch into glucose which can be utilized for immediate energy or converted to glycogen and stored in the liver for later energy needs. It exists throughout the vegetable kingdom, its chief commercial sources being the cereals and potatoes.
State anxiety: The actual experience of anxiety, characterized by feelings of apprehension or nervousness, that is accompanied by an increased physiological arousal.
Static Contraction: See isometric action.
Static stretching: Stretching performed at a slow constant speed, with the end position held for 30 seconds. A static stretch includes the relaxation and simultaneous lengthening of the stretched muscle.
Steady State: The physiological stare, during submaximal exercise, where oxygen uptake and heart rate level off, energy demands and energy production are balanced, and the body can maintain the level of exertion for an extended period of time.
Status epilepticus: A seizure lasting more than 30 minutes or a seizure that occurs so frequently that consciousness is not restored.
Steroids: Naturally-occurring and synthetic chemicals that include some hormones, bile acids, and other substances. See anabolic steroids.
Sticking point: The most difficult part of the exercise that typically occurs soon after the transition from the eccentric to the concentric phase.
Straight Sets: Groups of repetitions (sets) interrupted by only brief pauses (30-90 seconds).
Strain: A stretching or tearing of a musculotendinous unit. Degrees of severity include first-degree, stretching of the unit; second-degree, partial tearing of the unit; third-degree, complete disruption of the unit. See also sprain.
Stretch reflex: The immediate contraction of a Muscle caused by a rapid stretch of that muscle.
Stretch–shortening cycle (SSC): The series of three phases that explains the mechanical and neurophysiological reactions to a plyometric movement.
Strength: The application of muscular force in any endeavour (speed and distance are not factors of strength): such as to a barbell, a ball, or to the ground underfoot. There are 5 broad categories of strength, each with its own special training requirements: absolute, limit, speed, anaerobic and aerobic.
Strength Training: Using resistance weight training to build maximum muscle force is the traditional way of defining the practice of strength training. However, a more global definition would account for the metabolic circumstances under which force is being applied (i.e., the energy contribution from ATP/CP, glycolytic or oxidative sources).
Stress: The general physical and psychological response of an individual to any real or perceived adverse stimulus, internal or external, that tends to disturb the individual’s homeostasis. Stress that is excessive or reacted to inappropriately, may cause disorders.
Stress Fracture: A partial or complete fracture of a bone because of the remodelling process’s inability to keep up with the effects of continual, rhythmic, nonviolent stresses on the bone. See also overuse.
Stress Management: A group of skills for dealing with stresses imposed on an individual without suffering psychological distress and/or physical disorders.
Stress Test: See graded exercise test.
Stretch Reflex: To prevent overextension and serious injury to muscles and tendons, muscles are equipped with specialized nerve cells (spindles) that “apply the brakes” when elasticity maximum is reached. Careful ballistic training augmented with plyometric drills can heighten the threshold of the stretch reflex mechanism and improve strength-generating ability.
Stretching: Lengthening a muscle to its maximum extension; moving a joint to the limits of its extension.
Striations: Grooves or ridge marks of muscles’ individual myofibrils visible through the skin, and resulting from both hypertrophy training and extremely low subcutaneous fat deposits; the ultimate degree of muscle definition.
Stride frequency: The number of steps per minute.
Stride length: The distance covered with each step.
Stroke volume: The quantity of blood ejected by the left ventricle expressed in millilitres of blood per beat.
Stroke Volume: The volume of blood pumped out of the heart into the circulatory system by the left ventricle in one contraction.
Structural exercise: An exercise that loads the trunk (vertebral column) and places stress on the lower back.
Submaximal: Less than maximum. Submaximal exercise requires less than one’s maximum oxygen uptake, heart rate, or anaerobic power. Usually refers to intensity of the exercise, but may be used to refer to duration.
Subluxation: Partial displacement of the joint surfaces.
Succinates: Succinic acid’s biological activities are varied. Their chief function is in their enzyme activity, but they also combine with protein to rebuild muscle fibre and nerve endings, and help fight infection.
Sucrose: A sweet disaccharide that occurs naturally in most land plants and is the simple carbohydrate obtained from sugarcane, sugar beet and other sources. It is hydrolysed in the intestine by sucrase to glucose and fructose.
Sudden cardiac death: Death occurring unexpectedly and instantaneously or within 1 hour of the onset of symptoms in a patient with or without known pre-existing heart disease.
Sulphur: A mineral of major structural importance to proteins, enzymes, antibodies, skin, and hair. No RDA. Dietary sources: beans, beef, eggs.
Superficial: External; located close to or on the body surface.
Superior: Refers to the head or upper; higher.
Superset: Alternating back and forth between two exercises until the prescribed number of sets is completed. The two exercises generally involve a protagonist and antagonist (e.g., the biceps and triceps, or the chest and upper back); however, common usage of the term also can mean any two exercises alternated with one another.
Supine: Refers to the body lying with the face upward, opposite of prone.
Supination: Assuming a horizontal position facing upward. In the case of the hand, it also means turning the palm to face forward. The opposite of pronation.
Supinated grip: A grip in which the hand grasps the bar with the palm up and the knuckles down.
Synergist: A muscle cooperating with another to produce movement that could not be performed by either muscle individually.
Supine: Lying down on the back, facing up.
Supplements: Any enterally (taken into the body by mouth) or parenterally (taken into the body other than by mouth) administered substance which serves health, ergogenic, growth, or other bodily processes which food alone either cannot accomplish or cannot accomplish as efficiently is referred to as a supplement. Supplements can be nutritional or non-nutritional in nature. The traditionally identified classifications of supplements are health foods, additives, herbals (botanicals), nutraceuticals (engineered foods), micronutrients, macronutrients, adaptogens (bodily adaptation enhancers), ergogenic (work enhancing) compounds and anabolic (growth enhancing) compounds. See also nutraceutical.
SWOT analysis: A strategic method of analysis consisting of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
Sympathetic Nervous System: An automatic system that speeds up most activities in the body.
Symptom: Any evidence by which a person perceives that he/she may not be well; subjective evidence of illness. See also sign.
Syncope: Fainting. A temporary loss of consciousness from insufficient blood flow to the brain.
Syndrome: A group of related symptoms or signs of disease.
Synergism: The combined effect of two or more parts of forces or agents which is greater than the sum of the individual effects. Example: the synergistic effect of a multiple vitamin and mineral formula compared to the benefits of one or two vitamins.
Synovial Fluid: A fluid that lubricates the smooth cartilage in joints.
Systole: The contraction, or time of contraction, of the heart. See also diastole.
Systolic Blood Pressure: Blood pressure during the contraction of the heart muscle. See also blood pressure.
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Tachycardia: Excessively rapid heart rate. Usually describes a pulse of more than 100 beats per minute at rest. See also bradycardia.
Tactile: Pertaining to the sense of touch; discrimination of texture and shape; detection of pressure, heat, and pain.
Target Behaviour: A behaviour that is the focus for change or improvement; also called an operant.
Target Heart Rate (THR): The heart rate at which one aims to exercise at a THR of 60 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate reserve. The minimum and maximum heart rates per unit of time that are assigned for an aerobic exercise session.
Telomarase: An enzyme that is normally active only in stem cells as well as the cells that give rise to sperm and egg. However, when cells become cancerous, telomerase is activated. These cells can then replicate without a limit and this process is called “immortalization.” There is currently debate about the actual role that telomerase activation plays in tumour formation. Telomerase uses an RNA template to maintain the ends of linear chromosomes. It is active in immortal cell lines (cancer, single celled organisms, germ cells) but inactive in most normal multicellular tissues.
Tendon: A band or cord of strong, fibrous (collagenous) tissue that connects muscles to bone.
Tendonitis: Inflammation of a tendon.
Testing Protocol: A specific plan for the conducting of a testing situation, usually following an accepted standard.
Test–retest method: A strategy to promote reliability by repeating a test with the same individual or group.
Testosterone: The sex hormone that predominates in the male is responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics and is involved in the hypertrophy of muscle. See also oestrogen. Anabolic steroids are synthetic chemicals that mimic the muscle-building effects of testosterone. Testosterone is an androgen, a sex hormone produced by all humans. It is important in the development of male gonads and sex characteristics. In females, testosterone is an intermediate product in the production of oestradiol’s. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is used to stimulate sex characteristics, to stimulate production of red blood cells, and to suppress oestrogen production. Long-term use can lead to kidney stones, unnatural hair growth, voice changes, and decreased sperm count.
Tetraplegia: See quadriplegia
Therapy: Treatment of illness or disability..
Therapeutic lifestyle change (TLC): A lifestyle modification that includes diet, physical activity, and weight loss.
Thermic effect of food: An increase in energy expenditure above resting metabolic rate, caused by the digestion and assimilation of food.
Thermogenic effect: The heat liberated from a particular food is thus a measure not only of its energy content but also of its tendency to be burned as heat.
Third-class lever: A lever in which the applied and resistive forces act on the same side of the fulcrum, but with the resistive force acting through a moment arm that is longer than that of the applied force.
Thorax: The portion of the trunk above the diaphragm and below the neck.
Thoracic: Refers to the chest.
Thrombotic occlusion: Blockage due to a blood clot.
Tidal volume: The amount of air moved during inhalation or exhalation with each breath.
Tiron: (Sodium-4,5-dihydroxybenzene-1,3-disulfonate) A chelator mentioned in the research literature which effectively clears vanadium from body tissues right from the first day of use. It is currently not available in supplement form. See also vanadyl sulphate.
Tissue: A collection of similar cells and their intracellular substances, a group of similar cells and fibers that form a distinct structure.
Tissue (or interstitial) Leverage: The degree of extra mechanical advantage gained by super heavyweight strength athletes by packing sheer mass from extra fat, liquid and protein between and inside muscle fibres.
Tissue Elasticity: Also known as viscoelasticity: involved in all explosive sports, including shot put, boxing, the baseball and javelin throw, and powerlifting. After being stretched, most bodily tissues: including muscles, but not so much with ligaments and tendons: return to their original shape or length. The quicker they do, the more force there is added to the force output stemming from both stretch reflex and muscle contraction.
Tonic: The state of being in a consistent state muscular or neural activity (tone).
Torque: Moment of force; the turning or twisting effect of a force with effect of producing a force through rotation; the product of force times length of the force arm.
Tort: A breach of legal duty other than a breach of contract that results in a civil wrong or injury; may be the foundation for a civil suit to collect damages.
Total peripheral resistance: The impedance of blood flow caused by exercise, nervous stimulation, metabolism, and environmental stress.
Training: Subjecting the body to repeated stresses with interspersed recovery periods to elicit growth in its capacity to handle such stresses.
Training Effect: Increase in functional capacity of muscles and other bodily tissues as a result of increased (overload) placed upon them.
Training Technologies: Athletes can tap into eight broad categories of accepted methods to attain performance goals: weight training, light resistance training, medical support, therapeutic modalities (Jacuzzi, massage, acupuncture, etc), psychological support, biomechanics, diet and nutritional supplements.
Training to Failure: Continuing a set-in weight training until inability to complete another rep without assistance.
Training Zone: See target heart rate.
Trait anxiety: The potential perception or prob- ability that a certain situation will cause anxiety.
Transcendental Meditation (TM): An effortless meditation technique scientifically shown to sweep away energy-sapping mental and physical stress and deep-rooted fatigue. Among athletes it improves energy, reaction time, workout recovery, mental alertness and coordination.
Transverse (horizontal) Plane: Separates the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) sections. A horizontal plane that divides the body or organs into upper and lower portions.
Traps: Slang for trapezius muscles, the largest muscles of the back and neck that elevates the shoulder girdle and draws the scapulae medially.
Triceps Brachii: The muscles on the back of the upper arm, prime movers for extending the elbow.
Trial load: An estimated load that is based on a percent of the client’s body weight.
Triglyceride: A combination of glycerol with three fatty acids: stearic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid.
Trimming Down: Gaining hard muscular appearance by losing body fat (a more contemporary phrase is “trimming and toning”).
Tropomyosin: A protein, attached to actin, that prevents actin from binding to the myosin cross- bridges.
Troponin: A protein that reacts with calcium to set the contractile mechanism into action within muscle fibres. A protein, attached to tropomyosin, that when activated shifts the tropomyosin to allow the actin to bind to the myosin cross-bridges.
True Synergy: When a muscle contracts to stop the secondary action of another muscle.
Twitch: A brief muscle contraction caused by a single volley of motor neuron impulses. See also fast-twitch fibres, slow-twitch fibres.
Type iic: A fast-twitch fibre that results from the ‘fusion’ of Type iib with surrounding satellite cells.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus: A disease in which the pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune process leading to absolute insulin deficiency; formerly known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM).
Type 2 diabetes mellitus: A disease resulting in insulin resistance in peripheral tissues and an insu- lin production deficit of the pancreatic beta cells; formerly referred to as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM).
Type I muscle fibre: A type of muscle fibre characterized by a slow rate of action and relaxation, high aerobic metabolic activity, and high fatigue resistance. Also known as a slow oxidative or slow- twitch fibre.
Type II-a muscle fibre: A type of muscle fibre characterized by a fast rate of action and relaxation, moderate aerobic and high glycolytic metabolic activity, and moderate fatigue resistance. Also known as a fast oxidative glycolytic fibre.
Type II-x muscle fibre: A type of muscle fibre characterized by a fast rate of action and relaxation, high glycolytic metabolic activity, and low fatigue resistance. Also known as a fast glycolytic fibre.
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Umbilicus: The navel – the site that marks the where the umbilical cord was present.
Underhand grip: See supinated grip.
Under striding: A walking or running gait in which, the foot takes too short a stride, causing wasted energy.
Undulating: Referring to a type of periodized training program that involves within-the-week or micro-cycle vacillations of training load and volume.
Universal Machine: One of several types of weight lifting devices where weights are on a track or rails and are lifted by levers or pulleys. Developed in the early 60s by Chuck Coker, the phrase originally referred to a multi-station gym.
Upper Abs: Abdominal muscles above navel. See also lower abs.
User space: The recommended area that a client needs to perform an exercise safely.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFA): Important in lowering blood cholesterol and may thus help prevent heart disease. They are essential for normal glandular activity, healthy skin, mucous membranes and many metabolic processes. Unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) are fatty acids whose carbon chain contains one or more double or triple bonds, and which are capable of receiving more hydrogen atoms. They include the group polyunsaturated, are generally liquid at room temperature and are derived from vegetables, nuts, seeds or other sources. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids include corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil and olive oil. Replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats in the diet can help reduce cholesterol levels. A small amount of highly unsaturated fatty acid is essential to animal nutrition. The body cannot desaturate a fat, such as vegetable shortening or margarine, sufficiently by its own metabolic processes to supply this essential need. Therefore, the dietary inclusion of unsaturated or polyunsaturated fats is vital. The three essential fatty acids (those which the body is unable to manufacture) are linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid. However, these fatty acids can be synthesized from linoleic acid if sufficient intake occurs. Linoleic acid should provide about 2% of total dietary calories. Corn, safflower and soybean oils are high in linoleic acid. See also monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, saturated fat.
Urinary System: Main excretory system of the body, which consists of the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra.
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Valsalva Manoeuvre: If the glottis (the narrowest part of the larynx is closed following full inspiration and the expiratory muscles are fully activated, the compressive forces of exhalation can increase the intrathoracic pressure from 2- or 3-mm Hg to upwards of 100 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure. This forced exhalation against a closed glottis is called the Valsalva manoeuvre (named after the Italian anatomist who first explained the phenomenon), and is common in weightlifting or other activities requiring short rapid maximum force application. The intrathoracic pressure causes the veins to compress and this in turn results in significantly reduced venous blood flow into the heart and into the brain. Dizziness, “spots” before the eyes and blackout can ensue. This is one good reason why those with cardiac problems should refrain from all-out straining (as in isometric contraction), and instead should engage in a more rhythmic type of weightlifting technique.
Vanadyl sulphate: (VOSO4) has been very extensively studied for its insulin-like activity as a blood glucose lowering agent. In other words, vanadyl sulphate dramatically increases glucose uptake by your muscle cells. There are many benefits: • Increased energy for workouts. • More rapid recovery following workouts. • Muscle glycogen (what glucose becomes when stored in your muscles) is more abundant,
Validity: The degree to which a test or test item measures what it is supposed to measure.
Valsalva manoeuvre: The act of breath-holding that contributes to maintaining intra-abdominal pressure; the client tries to exhale against a “closed throat.”
Variation: A purposeful change of the program design variable assignments to expose a client to new or different training stressors.
Venous return: The return of the blood to the right atrium from the body (periphery).
Ventricle: A lower chamber of the heart that functions to pump blood from the heart (right ventricle pumps to the lungs, left ventricle pumps to the body).
Very low-density lipoproteins (vldls): Proteins that transport primarily triglycerides; when elevated, these contribute to an increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Vasoconstriction: The narrowing of blood vessels.
Vasodilation: The widening of blood vessels.
Vein: A vessel that carries blood away from tissues and towards the heart.
Velocity: The rate of motion of a body traveling in a particular direction.
Ventilation: The process of oxygenating the blood through the lungs.
Ventricle: A small cavity or pouch; chambers of the heart that push blood out to the tissues.
Vertigo: A feeling of dizziness, as though the environment was revolving.
Visualization: The ability of the brain to draw and recall mental images that can create positive emotional responses and improve motivation.
Viscosity: The state of being sticky or thick.
Vital capacity: The total volume of air that can be exhaled following a maximal inhalation.
Volume: The total amount of weight lifted in a training session (i.e., total repetitions the weight lifted per repetition) or the total number of repetitions completed in a training session (i.e., the number of repetitions performed in each set or the number of sets).
Voluntary muscle: Skeletal muscle; muscle under one’s control.
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Warm-up: Light to moderate physical activity performed prior to exercise.
Waiver: A contract that serves as evidence that the injured client waived her right to sue for negligence.
Wolff’s law: Law stating that bone density will increase in response to mechanical stress.
Work rate: Power or work generated per unit of time.
Work: The product of the force exerted on an object and the distance the object moves (i.e., force x distance).
Work-to-rest ratio: The relationship between the duration of the exercise interval and that of the recovery interval.